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Unequal treaties

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Unequal treaties
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese不平等條約
Simplified Chinese不平等条约
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinbùpíngděng tiáoyuē
Wade–Gilespu1 pʻing2 teng3 tʻiao2 yüeh1
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutpingbat1 ping4 dang2 tiu4 joek3
Korean name
Hangul불평등 조약
Hanja不平等條約
Transcriptions
Revised Romanizationbulpyeongdeung joyak
McCune–Reischauerpulp'yŏngdŭng choyak
Japanese name
Kanji不平等条約
Transcriptions
Romanizationfu byōdō jōyaku

The unequal treaties were a series of agreements made between East Asian countries—most notably Qing China, Tokugawa Japan (in the 1850s) and Joseon Korea—and imperial powers—most notably the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Empire of Japan (starting in the late 1870s), Italy, Portugal, the United States and Russia—during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[1] They were often signed following a military defeat suffered by the Asian party, or amid military threats made by the Western powers. The terms specified obligations to be borne almost exclusively by the Asian party and included provisions such as the cession of territory, payment of reparations, opening of treaty ports, relinquishment of the right to control tariffs and imports, and granting of extraterritoriality to foreign citizens.[2]

With the rise of Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialism in the 1920s, both the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) used the concept to characterize the Chinese experience of losing sovereignty between roughly 1840 to 1950. The term "unequal treaty" became associated with the concept of China's "century of humiliation", especially the concessions to foreign powers and the loss of tariff autonomy through treaty ports, and continues to serve as a major impetus for the foreign policy of China today.

Japan and Korea also use the term to refer to several treaties that resulted in a reduction of their national sovereignty. Japan and China signed treaties with Korea such as the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 and China–Korea Treaty of 1882, with each granting privileges to the former parties concerning Korea. Japan after the Meiji Restoration also began enforcing unequal treaties against China after its victory in the First Sino-Japanese War for influence over Korea as well as China's coastal ports and territories.

China

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Foreign imperialism in China § Unequal treaties.[edit]

The term "unequal treaties" refers to a series of one-sided agreements imposed upon China by foreign powers during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[3] They were often signed following a Chinese capitulation from military defeats or threats. The terms specified obligations to be borne almost exclusively by China and included provisions such as ceding territory, paying reparations, opening treaty ports, relinquishing the right to control tariffs and imports, and granting extraterritoriality to foreign citizens.[4] The earliest "unequal treaty" was the 1841 Convention of Chuenpi negotiations during the First Opium War, followed by the 1842 Treaty of Nanking.[5] Because the unequal treaties all guaranteed most favoured nation for the foreign powers, if any foreign power gained additional advantages in China, these were automatically extended to provide parity to the other foreign powers.[6]: 13–14 

The term was popularized in the 1920s by Sun Yat-sen to describe the treaties that were signed during the "treaty century".[7]: 53 [8] With the rise of Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialism, both the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) used the concept to characterize the loss of Chinese sovereignty that started in the 1840s. In assessing the term's usage in rhetorical discourse since the early 20th century, American historian Dong Wang notes that "while the phrase has long been widely used, it nevertheless lacks a clear and unambiguous meaning" and that there is "no agreement about the actual number of treaties signed between China and foreign countries that should be counted as unequal."[8] However, within the scope of Chinese historiographical scholarship, the phrase has typically been defined to refer to the many cases in which China was effectively forced to pay large amounts of financial reparations, open up ports for trade, cede or lease territories, and make various other concessions of sovereignty to foreign spheres of influence, following military threats.[5] The Chinese-American sinologist Immanuel Hsu states that the Chinese viewed the treaties they signed with the foreign powers as unequal "because they were not negotiated by nations treating each other as equals but were imposed on China after a war, and because they encroached upon China's sovereign rights ... which reduced her to semicolonial status".[9]

Treaty Year Imposer Imposed on
  English name    Chinese name 
Treaty of Nanking 南京條約 1842 BERJAYA United Kingdom BERJAYA Qing dynasty
Treaty of the Bogue 虎門條約 1843 BERJAYA United Kingdom
Treaty of Wanghia 中美望廈條約 1844 BERJAYA United States
Treaty of Whampoa 黃埔條約 1844 BERJAYA France
Treaty of Canton 中瑞廣州條約 1847 BERJAYA Sweden-Norway
Treaty of Kulja 中俄伊犁塔爾巴哈臺通商章程 1851 BERJAYA Russia
Treaty of Aigun 璦琿條約 1858 BERJAYA Russia
Treaty of Tientsin (1858) 天津條約 1858 BERJAYA France
BERJAYA United Kingdom
BERJAYA Russia
BERJAYA United States
Convention of Peking 北京條約 1860 BERJAYA United Kingdom
BERJAYA France
BERJAYA Russia
Treaty of Tientsin (1861) 中德通商条约 1861 BERJAYA Prussia, also for Deutscher Zollverein
Chefoo Convention 煙臺條約 1876 BERJAYA United Kingdom
Treaty of Livadia 里瓦幾亞條約 1879 BERJAYA Russia
Treaty of Saint Petersburg 伊犁條約 1881 BERJAYA Russia
Treaty of Tientsin (1885) 中法新約 1885 BERJAYA France
Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking 中葡北京條約 1887 BERJAYA Portugal
Treaty of Shimonoseki (Treaty of Maguan) 馬關條約 1895 BERJAYA Japan
Li–Lobanov Treaty 中俄密約 1896 BERJAYA Russia
Convention for the Lease of the Liaotung Peninsula 旅大租地条约 1898 BERJAYA Russia
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory 展拓香港界址專條 1898 BERJAYA United Kingdom
Treaty of Kwangchow Wan [fr] 廣州灣租界條約 1899 BERJAYA France
Boxer Protocol 辛丑條約 1901 BERJAYA United Kingdom
BERJAYA United States
BERJAYA Japan
BERJAYA Russia
BERJAYA France
BERJAYA Germany
BERJAYA Italy
BERJAYA Austria-Hungary
BERJAYA Belgium
BERJAYA Spain
BERJAYA Netherlands
Sino-Swedish Treaty of 1908[10] 中瑞通商條約 1908 BERJAYA Sweden
Simla Convention 西姆拉條約 1914 BERJAYA United Kingdom BERJAYA Republic of China
Twenty-One Demands 二十一條 1915 BERJAYA Japan
Sino-Japanese Joint Defence Agreement 中日共同防敵軍事協定 1918 BERJAYA Japan
Tanggu Truce 塘沽協定 1933 BERJAYA Japan

Japan

[edit]

Prior to the Meiji Restoration, Japan was also subject to numerous unequal treaties. When the US expeditionary fleet led by Matthew Perry reached Japan in 1854 to force open the island nation for American trade, the country was compelled to sign the Convention of Kanagawa under the threat of violence by the American warships.[11] This event abruptly terminated Japan's 220 years of seclusion under the Sakoku policy of 1633 under unilateral foreign pressure and consequentially, the convention has been seen in a similar light as an unequal treaty.[12]

Another significant incident was the Tokugawa Shogunate's capitulation to the Harris Treaty of 1858, negotiated by the eponymous U.S. envoy Townsend Harris, which, among other concessions, established a system of extraterritoriality for foreign residents. This agreement would then serve as a model for similar treaties to be further signed by Japan with other foreign Western powers in the weeks to follow, such as the Ansei Treaties, which forcefully opened five Japanese ports, established extraterritoriality for foreigners and set fixed, low tariffs for Japan, which caused significant economic disruption and political outrage in Japan.[13]

Unequal treaties with the United States and Europe also prevented Japan from unilaterally setting tariff rates on imported goods.[14]: 8  As a result, it was hampered in developing domestic industries that could compete with imported goods.[14]: 8 

The enforcement of these unequal treaties were a tremendous national shock for Japan's leadership as they both curtailed Japanese sovereignty for the first time in its history and also revealed the nation's growing weakness relative to the West through the latter's successful imposition of such agreements upon the island nation. An objective towards the recovery of national status and strength would become an overarching priority for Japan, with the treaty's domestic consequences being the end of the Bakufu and its 700 years of shogunate rule over Japan in 1868, and the establishment of a new imperial government known as the Empire of Japan.[15]

The unequal treaties ended at various times for the countries involved and Japan's victories in the 1894–95 First Sino-Japanese War convinced many in the West that unequal treaties could no longer be enforced on Japan as it was a great power in its own right. The Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation in 1894, negotiated by Foreign Minister Mutsu Munemitsu, was the first successful move toward eliminating extraterritoriality which was fully achieved in 1899. This view gained more recognition following the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, whereby Japan most notably defeated Russia in a massive humiliation for the latter.[16]

Treaty Year Imposer Imposed on
English name Japanese name
Convention of Kanagawa 日米和親条約 1854[17] BERJAYA United States BERJAYA Tokugawa shogunate
Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty 日英和親条約 1854[18] BERJAYA United Kingdom
Treaty of Shimoda 下田条約 1855 BERJAYA Russia
Ansei Treaties
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan (Harris Treaty) 安政条約 1858[19] BERJAYA United States
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Japan BERJAYA Netherlands
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Russian Empire and Japan BERJAYA Russia
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between British Empire and Japan BERJAYA United Kingdom
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan BERJAYA France
Prussian-Japanese Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation 日普修好通商条約 1861[20] BERJAYA Prussia
Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation between Austria and Japan 日墺修好通商航海条約 1868[21] BERJAYA Austria-Hungary BERJAYA Japan
Spanish-Japanese Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation 日西修好通商航海条約 1868[22] BERJAYA Spain
Mexican-Japanese Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation 日墨修好通商航海条約 1888 BERJAYA Mexico
Retrocession following the Triple Intervention
Convention of retrocession of the Liaodong Peninsula [ja]		 遼東還付条約 1895[23] BERJAYA France
BERJAYA Russia
BERJAYA Germany

Korea

[edit]

Korea's first unequal treaty was not with the West, but instead with Japan. The Ganghwa Island incident in 1875 saw Japan send the warship Un'yō led by Captain Inoue Yoshika with the implied threat of military action to coerce the Korean kingdom of Joseon through the show of force. After an armed clash ensued around Ganghwa Island where the Japanese force was sent, which resulted in its victory, the incident subsequently forced Korea to open its doors to Japan by signing the Treaty of Ganghwa Island, also known as the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876.[24]

During this period Korea also signed treaties with Qing China and the West powers (such as the United Kingdom and the United States). In the case of Qing China, it signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882 with Korea stipulating that Korea was a dependency of China and granted the Chinese extraterritoriality and other privileges,[25] and in subsequent treaties China also obtained concessions in Korea, such as the Chinese concession of Incheon.[26][27] However, Qing China lost its influence over Korea following the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895.[28]

As Japanese dominance over the Korean peninsula grew in the following decades, it imposed more unequal treaties, beginning with the 1882 Treaty of Chemulpo, which allowed Japan to station troops in Korea following the Imo Incident. with respect to the unequal treaties imposed upon the kingdom by the Western powers (1882 Shufeldt Treaty), Korea's diplomatic concessions with those states became largely null and void by 1910, when it was annexed by Japan.[29]

Treaty Year Imposer Imposed on
English name Korean name
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876
(Treaty of Ganghwa)		 강화도 조약 (江華島條約) 1876[30] BERJAYA Japan BERJAYA Joseon dynasty
United States–Korea Treaty of 1882
(Shufeldt Treaty)[dubious – discuss]		 조미수호통상조약 (朝美修好通商條約) 1882[31] BERJAYA United States
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1882
(Treaty of Chemulpo)		 제물포 조약 (濟物浦條約) 1882 BERJAYA Japan
China–Korea Treaty of 1882
(Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules)		 조청상민수륙무역장정 (朝淸商民水陸貿易章程) 1882[32] BERJAYA Qing dynasty
Germany–Korea Treaty of 1883 조독수호통상조약 (朝獨修好通商條約) 1883[33] BERJAYA Germany
United Kingdom–Korea Treaty of 1883     조영수호통상조약 (朝英修好通商條約) 1883[34] BERJAYA United Kingdom
Russia–Korea Treaty of 1884 조로수호통상조약 (朝露修好通商條約) 1884[35] BERJAYA Russia
Italy–Korea Treaty of 1884 조이수호통상조약 (朝伊修好通商條約) 1884[36] BERJAYA Italy
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1885
(Treaty of Hanseong)		 한성조약 (漢城條約) 1885[37] BERJAYA Japan
France–Korea Treaty of 1886 조불수호통상조약 (朝佛修好通商條約) 1886[38] BERJAYA France
Austria–Korea Treaty of 1892 조오수호통상조약 (朝奧修好通商條約) 1892[39] BERJAYA Austria-Hungary
Belgium–Korea Treaty of 1901 조벨수호통상조약 (朝白修好通商條約) 1901[40] BERJAYA Belgium BERJAYA Korean Empire
Denmark–Korea Treaty of 1902 조덴수호통상조약 (朝丁修好通商條約) 1902[41] BERJAYA Denmark
Japan–Korea Treaty of February 1904 한일의정서 (韓日議定書) 1904[42] BERJAYA Japan[43]
Japan–Korea Agreement of August 1904 제1차 한일협약 (第一次韓日協約) 1904[44] BERJAYA Japan[45]
Japan–Korea Agreement of April 1905 한일통신협정 1905[46] BERJAYA Japan[47]
Japan–Korea Agreement of August 1905 제2차 한일의정서 1905[48] BERJAYA Japan[49]
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905
 제2차 한일협약 (第二次韓日協約)
(을사조약 (乙巳條約))		 1905[50] BERJAYA Japan[51]
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 제3차 한일협약 (第三次韓日協約)
(정미조약 (丁未條約))		 1907[52] BERJAYA Japan
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 한일병합조약 (韓日倂合條約) 1910[53] BERJAYA Japan

Ryukyu (Okinawa)

[edit]
Treaty Year Imposer Imposed on
English name Okinawan or Classical Chinese
Convention between the Lew Chew Islands and the United States of America 琉米修好条約 1854 BERJAYA United States Ryukyu Kingdom
Convention entre la France et les Iles Liou-tchou 琉仏修好条約 1855 BERJAYA France
Traktaat tusschen Nederlanden en Lioe-kioe 琉蘭修好条約 1859 BERJAYA Netherlands
Establishment of the Ryukyu Domain 琉球藩設置 1872 BERJAYA Japan
六ヶ条の御達書 (令達) 1875 BERJAYA Japan
Ryukyu Annexation Proposal 琉球処分 1878-1879 BERJAYA Japan

Vietnam

[edit]
Treaty Year Imposer Imposed on
English name Vietnamese name
Treaty of Versailles (1787) Hiệp ước Versailles (1787) 1767 Kingdom of France Nguyễn lords
Bonard Treaty Hòa ước Nhâm Tuất (壬戌和約) 1862 BERJAYA France Đại Nam
Treaty of Huế (1863) Hòa ước Quý Hợi (癸亥和約) 1863 BERJAYA France
Draft Treaty of Aubaret [vi] Hòa ước Giáp Tý(甲子和約) 1864 BERJAYA France
Philastre treaty Hòa ước Giáp Tuất (甲戌和約) 1874 BERJAYA France
Harmand Treaty Hòa ước Harmand (Hác-măng)) / Hòa ước Quý Mùi (癸未和約) 1883 BERJAYA France
Patenôtre Treaty Hòa ước Patenôtre (Pa-tơ-nốt) / Hòa ước Giáp Thân (甲申和約)) 1884 BERJAYA France

Thailand

[edit]
Treaty Year Imposer Imposed on
English name Thai name
Siamese–American Treaty of Amity and Commerce สนธิสัญญาไมตรีและพาณิชย์ ค.ศ. 1833 1833 BERJAYA United States BERJAYA Kingdom of Siam
Bowring Treaty สนธิสัญญาเบาว์ริง 1855 BERJAYA United Kingdom
American–Siamese Treaty of 1856 สนธิสัญญาสหรัฐอเมริกา–สยาม พ.ศ. 2399 1856 BERJAYA United States
Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1856 สนธิสัญญาฝรั่งเศส–สยาม พ.ศ. 2399 1856 BERJAYA France
Danish-Siamese Treaty of 1858 สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. ๑๘๕๘) 1858 BERJAYA Denmark
Portuguese-Siamese Treaty of 1859 สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1859) 1859 BERJAYA Portugal
สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1860) 1860 BERJAYA Netherlands
สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1862) 1862 BERJAYA Prussia, also for Deutscher Zollverein
สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1863) 1863 BERJAYA Belgium
สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1863) 1863 BERJAYA Italy
สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1863) 1863 BERJAYA Sweden-Norway
Italo-Siamese Treaty of 1868 [it] สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1868) 1868 BERJAYA Italy
สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1869) 1869 BERJAYA Austria-Hungary
สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1870) 1870 BERJAYA Spain
Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1893 [th] สนธิสัญญาสยาม–ฝรั่งเศส ร.ศ. 112 1893 BERJAYA France
สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1898) 1898 BERJAYA Japan
สนธิสัญญาทางพระราชไมตรี การค้า และการเดินเรือ (ค.ศ. 1899) 1899 BERJAYA Russia
Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1904 สนธิสัญญาสยาม–ฝรั่งเศส ร.ศ. 122 1904 BERJAYA France
Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1907 สนธิสัญญาสยาม–ฝรั่งเศส ร.ศ. 125 1907 BERJAYA France
Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 สนธิสัญญาอังกฤษ–สยาม พ.ศ. 2452 1909 BERJAYA United Kingdom

See also

[edit]

Other unequal treaties outside East Asia:

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ "Unequal Treaties with China". Encyclopédie d’histoire numérique de l’Europe. Retrieved May 22, 2022.
  2. ↑ Fravel, M. Taylor (October 1, 2005). "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes". International Security. 30 (2): 46–83. doi:10.1162/016228805775124534. ISSN 0162-2889. S2CID 56347789.
  3. ↑ "Unequal Treaties with China". Encyclopédie d'histoire numérique de l'Europe. Retrieved May 22, 2022.
  4. ↑ Fravel, M. Taylor (October 1, 2005). "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes". International Security. 30 (2): 46–83. doi:10.1162/016228805775124534. ISSN 0162-2889. S2CID 56347789.
  5. 1 2 Dong Wang, China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2005).
  6. ↑ Wong, Stephanie M. (2025). Making Catholicism Chinese: the Catholic Church in a Modernizing China. New York, NY, United States of America: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-762369-5.
  7. ↑ Crean, Jeffrey (2024). The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-23394-2.
  8. 1 2 Wang, Dong. (2005). China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9780739112083.
  9. ↑ Hsu, Immanuel C. Y. (1970). The Rise of Modern China. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 239. ISBN 0195012402.
  10. ↑ Ingemar Ottosson (2019). Möten i monsunen.
  11. ↑ Hall, John Whitney; Hall, John Whitney (1991). Japan: from prehistory to modern times. Michigan classics in Japanese studies. Ann Arbor, Mich: Center for Japanese Studies, the Univ. of Michigan. ISBN 978-0-939512-54-6.
  12. ↑ Miyauchi, D. Y. (May 1970). "Yokoi Shōnan's Response to the Foreign Intervention in Late Tokugawa Japan, 1853–1862". Modern Asian Studies. 4 (3): 269–290. doi:10.1017/s0026749x00011938. ISSN 0026-749X. S2CID 145055046.
  13. ↑ Michael R. Auslin (2006). Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. pp. 17, 44. ISBN 9780674020313.
  14. 1 2 Hirata, Koji (2024). Making Mao's Steelworks: Industrial Manchuria and the Transnational Origins of Chinese Socialism. Cambridge Studies in the History of the People's Republic of China series. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-38227-4.
  15. ↑ Totman, Conrad (1966). "Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 26: 102–124. doi:10.2307/2718461. JSTOR 2718461.
  16. ↑ Oye, David Schimmelpenninck van der (January 1, 2005). "The Immediate Origins of the War". The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: 23–44. doi:10.1163/9789047407041_008. ISBN 978-90-474-0704-1.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)
  17. ↑ Auslin, Michael R. (2004) Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy, p. 17., p. 17, at Google Books
  18. ↑ Auslin, p. 30., p. 30, at Google Books
  19. ↑ Auslin, pp. 1, 7., p. 1, at Google Books
  20. ↑ Auslin, p. 71., p. 71, at Google Books
  21. ↑ Auslin, Michael R. (2004) Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy, p. 154., p. 154, at Google Books
  22. ↑ Howland, Douglas (2016). International Law and Japanese Sovereignty: The Emerging Global Order in the 19th Century. Springer. ISBN 9781137567772.
  23. ↑ Dreyer, June Teufel (2016). Middle Kingdom and Empire of the Rising Sun: Sino-Japanese Relations, Past and Present. Oxford University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-19-537566-4.
  24. ↑ Preston, Peter Wallace. [1998] (1998). Blackwell Publishing. Pacific Asia in the Global System: An Introduction. ISBN 0-631-20238-2
  25. ↑ Duus, Peter (1998). The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 54. ISBN 0-52092-090-2.
  26. ↑ "Guide to Incheon's Chinatown". March 3, 2022. Retrieved September 30, 2023.
  27. ↑ Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017). A New Modern History of East Asia. V&R unipress GmbH. p. 97. ISBN 978-3-7370-0708-5.
  28. ↑ Paine, S. C. M. (November 18, 2002). "The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy". Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511550188. ISBN 978-0-521-81714-1.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)
  29. ↑ I. H. Nish, "Japan Reverses the Unequal Treaties: The Anglo-Japanese Commercial Treaty of 1894," Journal of Oriental Studies (1975) 13#2 pp 137-146.
  30. ↑ Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921–1922. (1922). Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament, p. 33., p. 33, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty Between Japan and Korea, dated February 26, 1876."
  31. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 29., p. 29, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Korea. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated May 22, 1882."
  32. ↑ Moon, Myungki. "Korea-China Treaty System in the 1880s and the Opening of Seoul: Review of the Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules," Archived October 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Journal of Northeast Asian History, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Dec 2008), pp. 85–120.
  33. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 32., p. 32, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Germany and Korea. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated November 23, 1883."
  34. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 32., p. 32, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Great Britain and Korea ... dated November 26, 1883."
  35. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 32., p. 32, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Russia. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated June 25, 1884."
  36. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 32., p. 32, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Italy. Treaty of Friendship and Commerce dated June 26, 1884."
  37. ↑ Yi, Kwang-gyu and Joseph P. Linskey. (2003). Korean Traditional Culture, p. 63., p. 63, at Google Books; excerpt, "The so-called Hanseong Treaty was concluded between Korea and Japan. Korea paid compensation for Japanese losses. Japan and China worked out the Tien-Tsin Treaty, which ensured that both Japanese and Chinese troops withdraw from Korea."
  38. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 32., p. 32, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and France. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated June 4, 1886."
  39. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 32., p. 32, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Austria. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated July 23, 1892."
  40. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 32., p. 32, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Belgium. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated March 23, 1901."
  41. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 32., p. 32, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Denmark. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated July 15, 1902."
  42. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 34., p. 34, at Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty of Alliance Between Japan and Korea, dated February 23, 1904."
  43. ↑ Note that the Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament in Washington, D.C., 1921–1922 identified this as "Treaty of Alliance Between Japan and Korea, dated February 23, 1904"
  44. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 35., p. 35, at Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 22, 1904."
  45. ↑ Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated August 22, 1904"
  46. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 35., p. 35, at Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated April 1, 1905."
  47. ↑ Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated April 1, 1905"
  48. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 35., p. 35, at Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 13, 1905."
  49. ↑ Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated August 13, 1905"
  50. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 35., p. 35, at Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated November 17, 1905."
  51. ↑ Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated November 17, 1905"
  52. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 35., p. 35, at Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated July 24, 1907."
  53. ↑ Korean Mission, p. 36., p. 36, at Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 20, 1910."

Bibliography

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