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Review
. 2021 Feb 25;10(3):342.
doi: 10.3390/antiox10030342.

Lycopene: A Critical Review of Digestion, Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion

Joseph Arballo  1 , Jaume Amengual  1   2 , John W Erdman Jr  1   2
Affiliations
Review

Lycopene: A Critical Review of Digestion, Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion

Joseph Arballo et al. Antioxidants (Basel). .

Abstract

Lycopene is a non-provitamin A carotenoid that exhibits several health benefits. Epidemiological data support a correlation between lycopene intake and the attenuation of several chronic diseases, including certain types of cancers and cardiovascular diseases. It is currently unknown whether the beneficial effects are from the native structure of lycopene or its metabolic derivatives: lycopenals, lycopenols, and lycopenoic acids. This literature review focuses on the current research on lycopene digestion, absorption, metabolism, and excretion. This review primarily focuses on in vivo studies because of the labile nature and difficulty of studying carotenoids within in vitro experimental models. The studies presented address tissue accumulation of lycopene, the modification of bioavailability due to genetic and dietary factors, and lycopene cleavage by the enzymes ß-carotene oxygenase 1 (BCO1) and ß-carotene oxygenase 2 (BCO2). The current literature suggests that the majority of lycopene is cleaved eccentrically by BCO2, yet further research is needed to probe the enzymatic cleavage activity at the tissue level. Additionally, results indicate that single nucleotide polymorphisms and dietary fat influence lycopene absorption and thus modify its health effects. Further research exploring the metabolism of lycopene, the mechanisms related to its health benefits, and optimal diet composition to increase the bioavailability is required.

Keywords: absorption; antioxidant; carotenoid; digestion; excretion; lycopene; metabolism.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Chemical structure of lycopene, lycopene isomers (15-cis, 13-cis, 9-cis), phytofluene, and phytoene.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Lycopene (lyc) is present in plant (e.g., tomato) chloroplasts in microcrystalline structures formed by the linear, trans-isomer of lyc. Heat processing leads to increased lyc bioavailability as well as lyc isomerization, creating a mixture of trans- and cis-isomers found in cooked tomato products. The absorption of the fat-soluble carotenoid, lyc, is enhanced when consumed with a meal containing dietary fat (about 10 g dietary fat with cooked tomatoes or about 15 g dietary fat with uncooked tomatoes). Other factors such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are associated with lycopene absorption and metabolism although more definitive work is needed to increase our understanding of the interaction of SNP’s and lycopene metabolism in various tissues. In the intestines, trans- and cis-isomers of lyc may enter enterocytes either by passive diffusion or facilitated by scavenger receptor class B type 1 (SR-B1). Trans- and cis-lyc are incorporated into chylomicrons (CM), possibly facilitated by the activity of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTTP), and transported to the liver via lymphatic circulation, during which some lyc may passively diffuse into tissues. In hepatocytes, contents of CM remnants (CMR) are repackaged into very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and distributed to the tissues via the bloodstream. Lipoproteins, especially low-density lipoprotein (LDL), interact with the tissues to transfer lyc, a process thought to be mediated in part by cell surface proteins SR-B1 and CD36. Although lyc preferentially accumulates within the liver, stores are also found in other tissues such as adipose, adrenal glands, kidneys, lungs, skin, prostate, testes, ovaries, and breastmilk. Dietary lyc is not efficiently absorbed. One study showed that an average of ~24% of a purified lyc dose was absorbed by human subjects [48].
Figure 3
Figure 3
Examples of lycopene metabolites.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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