¹ Posnansky, M., ‘The excavation of an Nkole capital site at Bweyorere’, Uganda Journal, XXXII, ii (1968), 165–82.Google Scholar

² Ozanne, P., ‘The diffusion of smoking in West Africa’, Odu, new series, II (1969), 29–42.Google Scholar

³ Ozanne, P., ‘Notes on the Early Historic Archaeology of Accra’, Trans. Hist. Soc. Ghana, VI (1962), 53Google Scholar et seq.

⁴ Balfour, H., ‘Earth smoking pipes from South Africa and central Asia’, Man, XXII (1922), 65–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵ Dunhill, A., The Pipe Book (New York, 1924; reprinted London, 1969)Google Scholar, See also by the same author ‘Pipe Smoking’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, XVII (1972), 1098.Google Scholar

⁶ Laufer, B. et al. Tobacco and its Use in Africa (Chicago, 1930).Google Scholar

⁷ Wulsin, F., ‘An archaeological reconnaissance of the Shari basin’, Harvard African Studies X: Varia Africana V (Cambridge, Mass., 1932), 1–88.Google Scholar Cf. Lebeuf, J.-P., Lebeuf, M. D., Treinen-Claustre, F. and Courtin, J., Legisement Sao de Mdaga (Tchad): Fouilles, 1960–1968 (Paris, 1980)Google Scholar, reviewed Shaw, Thurstan, B.S.O.A.S., xlvi, i (1983), 203.Google Scholar

⁸ Shaw, M., ‘Native pipes and smoking in South Africa’ Annals of the South African Museum, XXIV (1938), 227–302.Google Scholar

⁹ Leakey, M., ‘Report on the excavations at Hyrax Hill, Nakuru, Kenya Colony, 1937–1938’, Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, xxx, iv (1945), 271–409.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Shaw, C. T., ‘Early smoking pipes: in Africa, Europe, and America’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xc, ii (1960), 272–93.Google Scholar

¹¹ van Sertima, I., They Came Before Columbus (New York, 1976).Google Scholar

¹² du Toit, B., ‘Man and cannabis in Africa: a study of diffusion’, African Economic History, I (1976), 17–35.Google Scholar This argument is repeated in the same author's Cannabis in Africa (Rotterdam, 1980)Google Scholar, although this work is primarily concerned with a survey of the present situation in Natal.

¹³ In addition to M. Shaw, ‘Native pipes’, and B. du Toit op. cit., see Baard, E., ‘Dagga stone pipes in the collection of the National Museum’, Researches of the National Museum, II (1967), 216–33Google Scholar; Walton, J., ‘The dagga pipes of Southern Africa’, Researches of the National Museum, I (1953), 85–113Google Scholar; Laidler, P. W., ‘Pipes and smoking in South Africa’, Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, XXVI, xii (1938), 1–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar, tried to show that there was no smoking in South Africa before the arrival of the Dutch in 1652, but in fact demonstrates that the Africans knew water pipes (which they could not have learned from the Dutch) before they learned the use of elbow-bend pipes.

¹⁴ In addition to M. Leakey, ‘Report’, see Dombrowski, J. C., ‘Excavations in Ethiopia: Lalibela and Natchabiet Caves, Begemder Province’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1971).Google Scholar

¹⁵ Shaw, M., ‘Native pipes’, 281.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Summers, R., Ancient Ruins and Vanished Civilisations of Southern Africa (Cape Town, 1971), 164, 226.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Summers, R., Robinson, K. R. and Whitty, A., Zimbabwe Excavations 1958 (Salisbury, National Museums of Southern Rhodesia: Occasional Papers, vol. 3, no. 23A, 1961), 184, 191–92, 213, 226.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Dombrowski, , Excavations, 127–9.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Leakey, , ‘Report’, 347.Google Scholar

²⁰ Posnansky, M., personal communication, 1981.Google Scholar

²¹ Phillipson, D. W., ‘Early Smoking Pipes from Sebanzi Hill, Zambia’ Arnoldia, I, xl (1965), 1–4Google Scholar; see also Fagan, B. and Phillipson, D. W., ‘Sebanzi’, J. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., xcv, iii (1965), 253–94.Google Scholar

²² Sassoon, H., ‘New Views on Engaruka, Northern Tanzania’, Journal of African History, VIII, ii (1967), 201–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²³ Sutton, J. E. G., ‘Engaruka and its Waters’, Azania, XIII (1978), 37–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁴ Dombrowski, J. C., ‘Excavations’, 102, 105, 100–12, 127–9, 209–11.Google Scholar

²⁵ van der Merwe, N., ‘Cannabis smoking in 13th-14th century Ethiopia: chemical evidence’, in Rubin, V. (ed.), Cannabis and Culture (The Hague, 1975), 77–80.Google Scholar

²⁶ Dombrowski, , ‘Excavations’, 160.Google Scholar

²⁷ F. R. Wulsin, ‘Archaeological reconnaissance’ see above, n. 7.

²⁸ Atherton, J., ‘Excavations at Kamabai and Yagala rock shelters, Sierra Leone’, West African Journal of Archaeology, II (1972), 71–2.Google Scholar

²⁹ Atherton, J., ‘The later Stone Age of Sierra Leone’ Ph.D. dissertation (University of Oregon, 1969)Google Scholar, cited in Hill, M., ‘Archaeological smoking pipes from central Sierra Leone’, West African Journal of Archaeology, VI (1976), 115–16.Google Scholar

³⁰ See, for example, the compendium of ethnographic accounts of cannabis use in Africa by Nelhans, B., Cannabis i Afrika (Uppsala, 1972).Google Scholar

³¹ van der Merwe, N., ‘Cannabis smoking’, 79.Google Scholar

³² Hill, ‘Archaeological smoking pipes’.

³³ Lebeuf, J.-P., ‘Pipes et plantes à fumer chez les Kotoko’, Notes Africaines, XCIII, i (1962), 16–17Google Scholar; see above, n. 7.

³⁴ Anonymous, , ‘Datura’, Encyclopaedia Britannica Macropedia, IV (1978)Google Scholar; Castenada, C., The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge (New York, 1968)Google Scholar; Anonymous, , ‘Jimson weed “tea” ends father's life’, Los Angeles Times (21 06 1978), 1, 20.Google Scholar

³⁵ Rice, T., ‘Scythians’, Encyclopaedia Britannica Macropedia, XVI (1978), 440.Google Scholar

³⁶ Sharma, R. and Dash, V., Agnivesa's Caraka Samhita, I (Benares, 1976), 113Google Scholar; Dunhill, Pipe Book.

³⁷ For early discussions of the history of cannabis in Africa see Laufer, Tobacco; for more recent histories of cannabis see du Toit, ‘Man and cannabis’; Rosenthal, F., The Herb: Hashish vs. Medieval Muslim Society (Leiden, 1971)Google Scholar (although it does not include tropical Africa); Austin, G. et al. Perspectives on the History of Cannabis (Washington, D.C., forthcoming)Google Scholar; Abel, E., Marihuana: The First Twelve Thousand Years (New York, 1980).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁸ Du Toit, ‘Man and cannabis’.

³⁹ Marcais, W. (Fleisch, H.), ‘Djim’, The Encyclopedia of Islam, II, (Leiden, 1965), 543–5.Google Scholar ‘From the traditional pronunciation of the readers of the Ḳurʾān, from the basic ideas of the Arab grammarians regarding its articulation, and from the modifications in it conditioned by the proximity of other sounds which they have noted (assimilations and dissimilations), one can justifiably conclude that, from the dawn of the classical period, the occluded g in djim was opened through palatalization, affrication or even complete spirantization, at least in certain dialects.’ However the voiced velar g was still common in Aden during the Middle Ages, and is still found in Muscat, the capital of Oman. Both these cities had extensive trade connexions with east Africa.

⁴⁰ Rosenthal, The Herb.

⁴¹ Dunhill, The Pipe Book.

⁴² Laufer, B., Tobacco and its Use in Asia (Chicago, 1924), 26–7.Google Scholar

⁴³ Mundy, P., The Travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, I (London, 1919), 384.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Du Toit, ‘Man and cannabis’.

⁴⁵ E.g. dos Santos, , Ethiopia Oriental (1586)Google Scholar and van Riebeck (1658), both cited in du Toit, ‘Man and cannabis’.

⁴⁶ A good introduction to the history of tobacco and pipes among American Indian peoples is Turnbaugh, W., ‘Native North American smoking pipes’, Archaeology (01-02. 1980).Google Scholar For more detail see McGuire, J., ‘Pipes and smoking customs of the American aborigines’, Report of the U.S. National Museum (1897), 351–645Google Scholar; West, G., ‘Tobacco, pipes and smoking customs of the American Indians’, Milwaukee Public Museum Bulletin, xvii (1934), 1–994Google Scholar; Cooper, J., ‘Stimulants and narcotics’, in Steward, J. H. (ed.), The Handbook of South American Indians, 7 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1946–1959), v, 527–36.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ West, , Tobacco, Pipes and Smoking Customs, 59–62, 482–3.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Turnbaugh, , ‘Native North American smoking pipes’, 21–2.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ In addition to previously cited descriptions of smoking pipes in West Africa, see Afeku, I. K., A Study of Smoking Pipes From Begho (Legon, 1976)Google Scholar; Daget, J. and Ligers, Z., ‘Une ancienne industrie Malienne: les pipes en terre’, Bulletin de l'I.F.A.N., xxivb (1962), 12–53.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ West, , ‘Tobacco, pipes and smoking customs’, 301, 934–5.Google Scholar

⁵¹ The Dawu pipes excavated by Shaw seem unusual in that they do not have a flat base, which suggests that they are the result of an independent introduction, perhaps related to the one postulated for Accra by Ozanne.

⁵² Ozanne, ‘The diffusion of smoking’; Hunwick, J. O., ‘A new source for the biography of Ahmad Baba Al-Tinbukti (1556–1627)’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (London, 1964), 588Google Scholar, lists the following terms for tobacco in Islamic Africa: tibgh or ṭābah (Maghribi Arabic), taba (Mande), tabā (Songhay), tābā (Kanuri), tāba (Shuwa Arabic), taba (Baghirmi), tāba or ṭaba (Dar Fur Arabic), tábà (Nupe and Yoruba); Shaw, C. T., ‘Chronology of excavation at Dawu, Ghana’ Man, lxii, ccxvii (1962), 136–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar, also postulated a Senegambian introduction and spread to the east.

⁵³ Walker, I. C., ‘Cajote–a Franco-African word for a tobacco pipe?’ West African Journal of Archaeology III (1973), 239–43.Google Scholar