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Abstract
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Biology
Marine Biology

Calypso in the Arabian Gulf: Jacques Cousteau's Undersea Survey of 1954 (2015)

Profile image of Michael Quentin MortonMichael Quentin Morton

2015, Liwa journal, vol. 7, issue 13

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26 pages

Abstract

Among Jacques Cousteau's many expeditions, his expedition to the Arabian Gulf stands alone. At first glance, the choice of Cousteau to lead an oil survey—he was neither a geologist nor a geophysicist—seems a curious one. Undersea techniques were still evolving, and his divers struggled to extract rock samples from the seabed. Perhaps the survey was not as significant as he later claimed, only a colourful footnote in the oil history of the region—how exactly should we view Jacques Cousteau and his expedition to the Arabian Gulf? This article examines a neglected aspect of the region’s oil history, the early exploration of the Abu Dhabi offshore concession. Referring to published accounts and primary sources, including material from the BP Archive at Warwick University, the author outlines the development of oil exploration in the region, charts the progress of Cousteau’s survey and assesses its place in the discovery of oil in the lower Arabian Gulf.

Key takeaways
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AI

  1. Jacques Cousteau's 1954 survey contributed to the early oil exploration in the Arabian Gulf.
  2. The Calypso expedition collected 150 rock samples across 400 survey stations.
  3. Cousteau employed innovative underwater techniques despite initial skepticism regarding his expertise.
  4. The Continental Shelf concept revolutionized offshore exploration rights and practices post-WWII.
  5. BP's subsequent seismic survey led to the discovery of major oil fields, including Umm Shaif.
Figures (12)
‘The wording of the agreement might have seemed clear-cut at the time; but the post- war years put a different complexion on the matter. The Americans were the first to realise the significance of the new offshore techniques, which opened up vast new possibilities under the seabed. A new concept in international law, the “Continental Shelf”, emerged. Geologists used this term to denote an extension of the continental crust where the sea is relatively shallow. In 1945, President Truman proclaimed the United States’ right to exploit its continental shelf, extending its jurisdiction well beyond the traditional three-mile territorial limit. Other nations followed suit with claims over their own continental shelves.° All this was highly pertinent to the Arabian Gulf. A post-war boom in global exploration had stimulated interest in offshore prospects, especially in the Gulf where geologists suspected that oil-bearing rock formations might lie beneath the sea. By 1949, several large oilfields had been found on the Arabian mainland, and there was a good possibility that these discoveries would extend beyond the shoreline. The Gulf’s comparatively shallow waters were conducive to drilling and the oil companies, assisted by new techniques, were ready and willing to explore its seabed. In the same year the American oil company, Aramco, began marine seismic surveys around Safaniya, some 200 kilometres north of Dhahran.°
‘The wording of the agreement might have seemed clear-cut at the time; but the post- war years put a different complexion on the matter. The Americans were the first to realise the significance of the new offshore techniques, which opened up vast new possibilities under the seabed. A new concept in international law, the “Continental Shelf”, emerged. Geologists used this term to denote an extension of the continental crust where the sea is relatively shallow. In 1945, President Truman proclaimed the United States’ right to exploit its continental shelf, extending its jurisdiction well beyond the traditional three-mile territorial limit. Other nations followed suit with claims over their own continental shelves.° All this was highly pertinent to the Arabian Gulf. A post-war boom in global exploration had stimulated interest in offshore prospects, especially in the Gulf where geologists suspected that oil-bearing rock formations might lie beneath the sea. By 1949, several large oilfields had been found on the Arabian mainland, and there was a good possibility that these discoveries would extend beyond the shoreline. The Gulf’s comparatively shallow waters were conducive to drilling and the oil companies, assisted by new techniques, were ready and willing to explore its seabed. In the same year the American oil company, Aramco, began marine seismic surveys around Safaniya, some 200 kilometres north of Dhahran.°
In 1950 he had found the ideal research platform, a former Royal Navy minesweeper that was being used as a ferry. The owner had named it Calypso after the nymph of the Greek Myths who captivated Odysseus. Thomas Loel Guinness, a British politician and frienc of the Cousteau family, purchased Calypso and leased it to Cousteau for the nominal sum of one franc a year. The 360-ton, 140 foot-long, wooden-hulled ship with twin engines was perfect for Cousteau’s purposes: it had a low afterdeck for diving operations. and a shallow draught for access to areas such as coral reefs. He converted it into an oceanographic vessel with a bulbous prow that provided an underwater observation chamber with eight portholes for all-round viewing. The finance for the conversion work came from private companies, the French Navy and the Cousteaus themselves.
In 1950 he had found the ideal research platform, a former Royal Navy minesweeper that was being used as a ferry. The owner had named it Calypso after the nymph of the Greek Myths who captivated Odysseus. Thomas Loel Guinness, a British politician and frienc of the Cousteau family, purchased Calypso and leased it to Cousteau for the nominal sum of one franc a year. The 360-ton, 140 foot-long, wooden-hulled ship with twin engines was perfect for Cousteau’s purposes: it had a low afterdeck for diving operations. and a shallow draught for access to areas such as coral reefs. He converted it into an oceanographic vessel with a bulbous prow that provided an underwater observation chamber with eight portholes for all-round viewing. The finance for the conversion work came from private companies, the French Navy and the Cousteaus themselves.
BERJAYA
The vessel entered the Elphinstone Inlet, a ford of the spectacular Musandam Peninsula. The divers made a short underwater reconnaissance and found edible oysters, which they consumed with gusto. Then they sailed to the village of Sibi where, the following morning, the villagers came out in small boats to meet them, asking for water. Some made cutthroat gestures, causing some alarm among the crew until it was realised that they simply wanted razor blades. Cousteau was happy to supply fresh water and offered the children chocolate, but they were unfamiliar with this and threw it into the sea.”
The vessel entered the Elphinstone Inlet, a ford of the spectacular Musandam Peninsula. The divers made a short underwater reconnaissance and found edible oysters, which they consumed with gusto. Then they sailed to the village of Sibi where, the following morning, the villagers came out in small boats to meet them, asking for water. Some made cutthroat gestures, causing some alarm among the crew until it was realised that they simply wanted razor blades. Cousteau was happy to supply fresh water and offered the children chocolate, but they were unfamiliar with this and threw it into the sea.”
Fig. 5: Jacques Cousteau (left) and his divers wearing aqualung (scuba) equipment. IMAGES FROM THE COUSTEAU SURVEY
Fig. 5: Jacques Cousteau (left) and his divers wearing aqualung (scuba) equipment. IMAGES FROM THE COUSTEAU SURVEY
Fig. 6: Using the gravimeter on the seabed. (source: BP Archive)
Fig. 6: Using the gravimeter on the seabed. (source: BP Archive)
Fig. 8: Divers descending to the seabed in the anti-shark cage. (source: BP Archive) Fig 7: Launching the drop-corer from the deck of Calypso. (source: BP Archive)
Fig. 8: Divers descending to the seabed in the anti-shark cage. (source: BP Archive) Fig 7: Launching the drop-corer from the deck of Calypso. (source: BP Archive)
BERJAYA
Fig. 9: The divers struggle to extract rock samples with a mallet and spike. (source: BP Archive)
Fig. 9: The divers struggle to extract rock samples with a mallet and spike. (source: BP Archive)
Fig. 10: Falco (right) hands a rock sample from the seabed to a geologist aboard Calypso.
Fig. 10: Falco (right) hands a rock sample from the seabed to a geologist aboard Calypso.
Fig. 11: Through a Lebanese interpreter (left), Jacques Cousteau discusses his work with Sheikh Shakhbut, who is studying Cousteau’s book, The Silent World. Simone Cousteau, the only woman on board, is also depicted. (Reproduced with permission of the BP Archive.)
Fig. 11: Through a Lebanese interpreter (left), Jacques Cousteau discusses his work with Sheikh Shakhbut, who is studying Cousteau’s book, The Silent World. Simone Cousteau, the only woman on board, is also depicted. (Reproduced with permission of the BP Archive.)
BERJAYA

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References (56)

  1. Calcott Gaskin, J., holograph, 23 April 1904, IOR/R/15/1/317.
  2. Pilgrim, Guy E., report of 9 June 1905, IOR/R/15/1/317, and "The Geology of the Persian Gulf and the Adjoining Portions of Persia and Arabia", Geological Survey of India, 1908, pp. 113-4.
  3. Lees to the chief geologist, 5 March 1926, BP Archive 135500. Lees' visit was followed in 1927 with a reconnaissance by Messrs. E.J. White and M.H. Lowson of the islands of the lower Gulf: "Preliminary Report on the Gulf islands Reconnaissance l927 (Anglo- Iranian Oil Co. Ltd. unpublished report).
  4. Abu Dhabi: Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Limited: Agreement dated 11 January 1939, BP Archive, Warwick University, ref. 164314/001-6.
  5. Proclamation 2667 -"Policy of the United States With Respect to the Natural Resources of the Subsoil and Sea Bed of the Continental Shelf ", 28 September, 1945, The American Presidency Project: <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=12332> accessed 15 February 2014.
  6. The History of Offshore Oil and Gas in the United States, National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling (2012), pp. 21-5; "Safaniya Field", Aramco World, August/September 1962, Vol. 13, No.7, pp. 3-7.
  7. Longrigg, letter dated 25 March 1949, cited in MacChesney, Brunson, International Law Situation and Documents (Washington, 1957), p. 154; "Land beneath the sea outside territorial waters", file 0629/2, IOR/R/15/4/10; Hawley, Donald, The Trucial States (London, 1970), p. 215. Superior Oil had drilled the first well in the Gulf of Mexico in 1938 and had a wealth of expertise in offshore exploration. For the Qatar concession, the company was in partnership with the London-registered Central Mining and Investment Company Ltd and operations were carried out by a Canadian-registered firm, the International Marine Oil Company Ltd.
  8. The full judgement appears in MacChesney, Brunson: International Law Situation, pp. 137-55. The case subsequently gained a certain notoriety in the Arab world because of the arbitrator's decision to apply Western legal principles in preference to Abu Dhabi's Sharia-based law.
  9. Superior Oil's withdrawal from oil operations in the Persian Gulf, see FO 371/98431; Qatar and General, Continental Shelf, BP Archive ref. 35947; Loganecker, memorandum of 6 June 1952, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954. The Near and Middle East, p. 597.
  10. Anglo-Iranian Oil Company negotiations with Sheikh of Abu Dhabi over marine oil concessions, 1952, FO 1016/176-7; "Persian Gulf -Continental Shelf ", 6 May 1952, BP Archive ref. 72088; "Report of Negotiations" by G.G. Stockwell, BP Archive ref. 124449.
  11. Bamberg, James, British Petroleum and Global Oil 1950-1975: The Challenge of Nationalism (Cambridge, 2000), p. 106.
  12. Agreement between His Excellency Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan Sheikh of Abu Dhabi and the D'Arcy Exploration Company, BP Archive ref. 52062; Stockwell to Cousteau, 17 December 1953, BP Archive ref. 119157.
  13. Pratt, Joseph A., Priest, Tyler, and Castaneda, Christopher J., Offshore Pioneers: Brown & Root and the History of Offshore Oil and Gas, (Houston 1997), pp. 34-6.
  14. "Ship for underwater oil search", Shipbuilding and Shipping Record, 10 September 1953, Vol. 82, p. 341.
  15. Matsen, Bradford, Jacques Cousteau: The Sea King (New York, 2009), p. 129. The identity of the "chief geologist" referred to is not entirely certain. George Martin Lees retired through ill health but continued as a consultant until his demise in 1955; his successor Peter Cox took over Lees' duties at some point during 1953.
  16. Slinger to the chief geologist, 27 July 1953, BP Archive ref. 4651.
  17. Falcon to Cousteau, 9 June 1953, BP Archive ref. 4651.
  18. Munson, Richard, Cousteau: The Captain and His World , p. 76.
  19. Wellings to Cox, 19 October 1953, BP Archive ref. 119157.
  20. Matsen: Cousteau, p, 131.
  21. Cousteau, D.P., to Sutcliffe, 28 Jan 1954, BP Archive ref. 119157.
  22. Cousteau, J. V., The Ocean World of Jacques Cousteau, (1978), p. 26.
  23. Cousteau, J.V., "Calypso explores for underwater oil", National Geographic Magazine, of August 1955, Vol. CVIII, No. 2, p. 161, Diole, Philippe, and Falco, Albert, The Memoirs of Falco, Chief Diver of Calypso, (London, 1976), p. 67.
  24. Harrison to Slinger, 10 February 1954 BP Archive ref. 79054.
  25. Report to H.E. The Ruler of Abu Dhabi on a Survey in the Abu Dhabi Marine Concession Area, February -April 1954, BP Archive ref. 4651.
  26. Cousteau, Jacques, with Dugan, James, The Living Sea, p. 127-7.
  27. The film is accessible at the BP Video Library: <http://www.bpvideolibrary.com> accessed 28 February 2014.
  28. Duchovnay, Gerald, Film Voices: Interviews from Post Script (New York, 2004), p. 227.
  29. Diole and Falco: The Memoirs of Falco, p. 67.
  30. Ibid.
  31. Ibid; Owen, E.W., Trek of the Oil Finders (Tulsa, 1975), p. 1346.
  32. Quote from Station 307 (00.09.45).
  33. Wellsted, James R., Travels in Arabia (London 1838), Vol. 1, p. 266.
  34. Diole and Falco: The Memoirs of Falco, p. 67; Cousteau and Dugan, The Living Sea, p. 127.
  35. Diole and Falco, The Memoirs of Falco, p. 71; "lopsided pearl", Dugan and Cousteau: The Living Sea, p. 125.
  36. Cousteau and Dugan: The Living Sea, p. 125. This bio luminosity is a well known phenomenon in the Arabian Gulf, although its effects can be alarming with shapes resembling rotating wheels, bubbles of light and phosphorescent waves reported: Staples, Robert F., "The Distribution and Characteristics of Surface Bioluminescence in the Oceans", US Naval Oceanographic Office, March 1966.
  37. Russell to D'Arcy Exploration. 28 March 1954; Harrison to D'Arcy, 28 March 1954, BP Archive ref. 4651.
  38. Tim Hillyard, "Visit of the Ruler of Abu Dhabi to Calypso", 15 April 1954, BP Archive ref. 00029990.
  39. Diole and Falco: The Memoirs of Falco, p. 72.
  40. Hillyard to Stockwell, 20 April 1954, BP Archive ref. 29990.
  41. CFP took a third share of the new company.
  42. Petroleum Times (1956), Vol. 60, p. 113.
  43. Smith, Norman J., The Sea of Lost Opportunity: North Sea Oil and Gas, British Industry and the Offshore Supplies Office, (Oxford, 2011), pp. 37-8.
  44. The British Petroleum Co Ltd, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd -Report on Offshore Drilling in the Gulf of Mexico : Abu Dhabi Exploration, Saurin, B F , BP Archive ref. 7021.
  45. "Das Island", BP Archive ref. 72088.
  46. Bamberg: British Petroleum, p. 207. Oil density is graded by the American Petroleum Institute ('API'). On the API scale, 36º is defined as a medium crude, light crude is 38º or more and heavy crude 22 º or less.
  47. Morton, M.Q., "The Abu Dhabi Oil Discoveries", GeoExpro, issue 3, vol. 8, 2011, pp. 52-56.
  48. Bamberg: British Petroleum, p. 207.
  49. "Hamdan Hears Plans to Refurbish Calypso", The National, 27 January 2009.
  50. The number of methods used were as follows: gravimeter 400; dredge 389; grab 106; jet Sampler 54; drop-corer 145; diving 133; pneumatic drill 8; photography 20, see Report to H.E. The Ruler of Abu Dhabi, p. 4.
  51. Duchovnay: Film Voices, p. 227.
  52. Cousteau: "Calypso Explores for Underwater Oil", National Geographic Magazine, of August 1955, Vol. CVIII, No. 2, p. 165.
  53. Calypso Log, June 1985, cited in Munson, p, 78.
  54. Cousteau and Dugan, The Living Sea, p. 129.
  55. Ali M.Y., Watts, A.B., Farid, A., "Gravity Anomalies of the United Arab Emirates: Implications for Basement Structures and Infra-Cambrian Salt Distribution", GeoArabia, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2014, pp. 85-112.
  56. Journal of the Institute of Petroleum, Vol. 49, No. 478, October 1968, pp. 308-315. Extract used with the kind permission of the Energy Institute, United Kingdom.

FAQs

sparkles

AI

What were the key outcomes of Cousteau's survey in the Arabian Gulf?add

The survey resulted in the collection of 150 rock samples from 400 stations and revealed significant gravitational anomalies on the seafloor. These findings contributed to the future exploration strategies leading to the discovery of oil fields like Umm Shaif and Zakum.

How did Cousteau innovate underwater surveying techniques for oil exploration?add

Using his aqualung, Cousteau enabled divers to collect rock samples from the seabed more effectively than traditional methods. This approach showcased novel underwater techniques in geological surveying, despite the challenges posed by the seabed conditions.

What challenges did Cousteau's team face during the marine survey?add

The divers encountered difficulties with heavy equipment malfunctioning, resulting in a reliance on manual sampling techniques. Weather conditions also disrupted operations, leading to delays and the need for temporary refuge.

What was the significance of the gravimeter survey conducted by Cousteau?add

The gravimeter survey was crucial in establishing gravitational trends related to potential offshore oil formations, influencing subsequent seismic evaluations. This data directly assisted in selecting drill locations for exploratory wells, marking a major step in exploration.

How did the oil companies perceive Cousteau's contributions to oil exploration?add

Despite initial skepticism about Cousteau's capabilities, companies found his use of innovative diving techniques and his vessel Calypso cost-effective for geological mapping. Ultimately, his methods provided valuable insights that guided later exploration efforts in the Arabian Gulf.

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Michael Quentin Morton
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The Search for Offshore Oil Abu Dhabi (2016)
Michael Quentin Morton

AAPG Explorer, 2016

The year 1953 marked the start of offshore exploration in the Lower Gulf when the sheikh of Abu Dhabi, Shakhbut bin Sultan Al Nahyan, granted a concession to D'Arcy Exploration. A succession of surveys resulted in the discovery of the Umm Shaif offshore field in 1958. This article traces the events leading to that discovery, and the subsequent development of the Abu Dhabi marine area, which includes one of the largest offshore fields in the world.

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Geological Society, London, Special Publications The Search for Petroleum in The Sultanate of Oman -The First 120 Years
Michael Quentin Morton

Geological Society Special Publication, 2024

This is a story of failure and success, of disappointment and elation. World wars, a market glutted with cheap oil and geologists unable to access areas of interest hampered the search. Early expeditions provided the first maps of the mountains and Dhofar, and glimpses of the geology of the interior, but no evidence of oil. Geological and geophysical surveys began in earnest in the 1950s, leading to the first exploratory drilling and the discovery of heavy oil at Marmul. Commercial oil was discovered a few years later at Fahud and Natih. All Oman’s largest oil fields were found over the next 20 years based on 2-D seismic data. Early concessions were large and ill-defined. More companies became involved as interest grew in exploration offshore and as acreage was relinquished onshore. Although gas was encountered as a byproduct of oil activities, exploration for gas did not begin until 1984 when it became apparent that the known accumulations were insufficient for future needs. Large accumulations of gas and condensate were subsequently discovered in central Oman. Petroleum continues to underpin the economy of the Sultanate as it strives to diversify and decarbonise. Useful lessons can be learned from the search so far.

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Potts 2016 - Trends and patterns in the archaeology and pre-modern history of the Gulf region. In J.E. Peterson, ed. The Emergence of the Gulf States: Studies in Modern History. London: Bloomsbury, pp. 19-42.
D.T. Potts
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Considering the ‘Terra Incognita’ and the implications for the Cultural Resource Management of the Arabian Gulf Palaeolandscape
Richard T . H . Cuttler

"The effects of changes in sea level over the past 100,000 years have been monumental both as a powerful catalyst for migration and for the displacement of populations. While the submergence of earlier landscapes has generally made them inaccessible to archaeologists, the potential for environmental preservation is thought to be higher than in most terrestrial areas. Despite this, these landscapes are often considered a ‘terra incognita’ to mainstream archaeology, due not only to the depth of water, but also to their burial through sedimentation. In the Arabian Gulf and elsewhere this has inevitably led to the marine areas being given less ‘archaeological credence’ than terrestrial areas. Over recent years a multitude of extensive marine geophysical data sets have been gathered, chiefly for the purposes of oil and gas exploration. Although such geophysical surveys are primarily targeted towards the mapping of deep subsurface rock formations, the top section of the data can be processed specifically to detail the currently unknown shallow palaeo-geomorphology of the Gulf, providing information that would be impossible to collect within archaeological budgets. Using such data to document palaeolandscapes is just one element of a marine mapping program which can form the basis of a cohesive strategy for managing the archaeological resource in marine areas. Such strategies impact upon education, the accessibility of heritage information to the public, and ultimately the protection of this marine cultural landscape."

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River of Oil: Early Oil Exploration in Iraq (2015)
Michael Quentin Morton

GeoExpro, 2015

'In 1925, the science of petroleum geology was still evolving, the geology of the Middle East was yet to be unravelled and great oil discoveries lay in the future. There were few maps of Iraq available and yet there were some intriguing clues to the presence of oil: folds that might contain oil traps, an abundance of seepages, an oilfield at Naft Khaneh and primitive wells at Qaiyara. The first survey party lacked little in the way of geological experience and knowledge of other parts of the world...'

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Related topics

  • Marine Biology
  • Oceanography
  • Middle East Studies
  • The Persian Gulf
  • Petroleum geology
  • Trucial States
  • History of Oil and Gas development
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