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. 2023 Feb 2;18(2):e0280347.
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0280347. eCollection 2023.

Ecological flexibility and adaptation to past climate change in the Middle Nile Valley: A multiproxy investigation of dietary shifts between the Neolithic and Kerma periods at Kadruka 1 and Kadruka 21

Charles Le Moyne  1   2 , Patrick Roberts  1   2   3 , Quan Hua  1   4 , Madeleine Bleasdale  2   5 , Jocelyne Desideri  6 , Nicole Boivin  1   2 , Alison Crowther  1   2
Affiliations

Ecological flexibility and adaptation to past climate change in the Middle Nile Valley: A multiproxy investigation of dietary shifts between the Neolithic and Kerma periods at Kadruka 1 and Kadruka 21

Charles Le Moyne et al. PLoS One. .

Abstract

Human responses to climate change have long been at the heart of discussions of past economic, social, and political change in the Nile Valley of northeastern Africa. Following the arrival of Neolithic groups in the 6th millennium BCE, the Northern Dongola Reach of Upper Nubia witnessed a cultural florescence manifested through elaborate funerary traditions. However, despite the wealth of archaeological data available from funerary contexts, including evidence for domesticated animals and plants as grave goods, the paucity of stratified habitation contexts hinders interpretation of local subsistence trajectories. While it is recognised archaeologically that, against the backdrop of increasing environmental deterioration, the importance of agriculture based on Southwest Asian winter cereals increased throughout the Kerma period (2500-1450 BCE), the contribution of domesticated cereals to earlier Neolithic herding economies remains unclear. This paper presents direct dietary data from a total of 55 Middle Neolithic and Kerma period individuals from Kadruka 21 and Kadruka 1. Microbotanical data obtained from human dental calculus and grave sediments are integrated with human and faunal stable isotopes to explore changes in dietary breadth over time. The combined results demonstrate the consumption of wild plant species, including C4 wetland adapted grasses, by Middle Neolithic individuals at Kadruka 1. Despite existing evidence for domesticated barley in associated graves, the results obtained in this study provide no clear evidence for the routine consumption of domesticated cereals by Middle Neolithic individuals. Rather, direct microparticle evidence for the consumption of Triticeae cereals is only associated with a single Kerma period individual and corresponds with an isotopic shift indicating a greater contribution of C3-derived resources to diet. These results provide evidence for Neolithic dietary flexibility in Upper Nubia through the persistence of foraging activities and support existing evidence linking increased agricultural reliance to the development of the Kerma culture.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

Fig 1
Fig 1. Locations of sites and regions discussed in the text.
(A) Map of Nile Valley, red inset indicates location of panel B; (B) Map of alluvial plain and palaeochannel systems in the Northern Dongola Reach of Upper Nubia, study sites KDK21 and KDK1 indicated in red, palaeochannels indicated in blue. World Imagery base map sourced from: Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geophysics, and the GIS User Community (ArcGIS Pro Licence 3.0).
Fig 2
Fig 2. Example of in situ calculus deposit selected for analysis.
(A) Supragingival calculus deposit (indicated by red arrow) on buccal surface of right M3, individual SK 63, KDK1; (B) Proximal surface (surface previously adhering to tooth) of sampled calculus from same individual under SEM.
Fig 3
Fig 3. Bayesian model of 14C dates from KDK21 and KDK1.
Prior distributions (unmodelled calibrations) are shown in light grey. Posterior distributions (modelled dates) are shown in dark grey and the plus symbol indicates the median modelled age. The Kerma 14C date for individual SK 68 was obtained from a hair sample [56]. Middle Neolithic 14C dates were obtained from Aspatharia spp. bivalves included in grave assemblages [31, 40]. Refer to S5 Table in S1 File.
Fig 4
Fig 4. Supragingival calculus sample from lingual surface of right M1, individual SK 62, KDK1.
Example of dental calculus sample with pores arranged perpendicular to the proximal interface (interface that previously adjoined the tooth surface). Scale bar (100 μm) applies to both panels.
Fig 5
Fig 5. Summary of microparticles recovered from KDK1 and KDK21 dental calculus.
Count data from 34 individuals with preserved microparticles. Samples are arranged according to site and chronological phase (‘Group’). Sample suffix _s indicates solid calculus, _p indicates powder calculus. Individual calculus samples with corresponding solid and powder fractions are indicated with shading for comparison of microparticle diversity/density.
Fig 6
Fig 6. Diagnostic starch granules recovered from dental calculus of individuals from KDK1.
(A–B) Type 1 native starch granule under plane (A) and cross-polarised light (B), individual SK 9 (Kerma); (C–D) Type 2 native starch granule under plane (C) and cross-polarised light (D), individual SK 97 (Middle Neolithic); (E–F) Type 3 modified starch granule under plane (E) and cross-polarised light (F), individual SK 88 (Middle Neolithic); (G–H) Type 4 native starch granule under plane (G) and cross-polarised light (H), individual SK 62 (Middle Neolithic); (I–J) cluster of Type 5 A-type and B-type starch granules under plane (G) and cross-polarised light (H), individual SK 78 (Kerma). Scale bar (20 μm) applies to all panels.
Fig 7
Fig 7. Key microparticle types recovered from dental calculus of KDK1 Middle Neolithic period individuals.
(A) Elongate dendritic phytolith, individual SK 134; (B–C) Elongate dendritic phytoliths overlaying Interdigitate phytoliths, individuals SK 55 (B) and SK 97 (C); (D) Interdigitate phytoliths (cf. Panicum spp.), individual SK 55; (E) Interdigitate phytoliths (cf. Panicum spp.), individual SK 62; (F–H) Interdigitate phytoliths (Echinochloa spp.), individual SK 97; (I) Spheroid echinate phytolith, individual SK 134; (J) Feather barbule fragment, individual SK 84; (K–L) Fungal spores, individuals SK 134 (K) and SK 42 (L). White arrows in Panel B and C indicate Interdigitate phytolith layer attached to Elongate dendritic phytoliths. Scale bar (20 μm) applies to all panels.
Fig 8
Fig 8. Interdigitate phytolith abundance and taxonomic classification.
Taxonomic specificity of Interdigitate phytoliths present in dental calculus samples from KDK1 Middle Neolithic period individuals.
Fig 9
Fig 9. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) scatterplot of phytolith morphotype presence/absence data from dental calculus samples according to archaeological group.
DCA scatterplot displaying 28.04% of the variance within the sample data, primary variation in the data is represented along axis 1, while secondary variation is represented along axis 2. The eigenvalues of axes 1 and 2 are 0.3280 and 0.2537, respectively. The total inertia is 2.075.
Fig 10
Fig 10. Summary of microparticle assemblages recovered from sediment samples from KDK1 and KDK21 Middle Neolithic grave fills.
Phytolith morphotypes are presented as percentages, other microparticles are presented as counts. CONISS cluster analysis conducted on phytolith morphotype percentages only. Refer to S2 File for phytolith counts.
Fig 11
Fig 11. Examples of phytolith morphotypes extracted from sediment samples from KDK1 Middle Neolithic grave fills.
(A) Bulliform flabellate phytolith extracted from sediment adhering to individual SK 42; (B–F) Phytoliths extracted from sediment adhering to individual SK 55, (B) Articulated Elongate dentate phytoliths; (C) Articulated Elongate dendritic phytoliths; (D) Articulated Elongate dendritic with attached Interdigitate layer; (E–F) Articulated Elongate dendritic with attached Interdigitate layer and Papillate cells. White arrows in Panel D, E and F indicate Interdigitate phytolith layer attached to Elongate dendritic phytoliths. Scale bar (20 μm) applies to all panels.
Fig 12
Fig 12. ẟ13C and ẟ18O measurements of human and faunal enamel from KDK21 and KDK1, Middle Neolithic and Kerma period.
KDK1 Kerma faunal sample T22 is plotted in S5 Fig in S1 File. Shading indicates estimated carbonate ẟ13C for individuals consuming 100% C3, mixed C3/C4, and 100% C4 sources [208]. VPDB = Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite. VSMOW = Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water.
Fig 13
Fig 13. ẟ13C and ẟ15N measurements of human tooth dentine and faunal bone collagen from KDK1, Kerma period.
Shading indicates estimated collagen ẟ13C for individuals consuming 100% C3, mixed C3/C4, and 100% C4 sources [208]. VPDB = Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite. AIR = Ambient Inhalable Reservoir.
Fig 14
Fig 14. ẟ13C and ẟ18O carbonate measurements of humans from this study and relevant Egyptian and Upper Nubian Nile Valley sites prior to New Kingdom conquest 1500 BCE.
Refer to S28 Table in S1 File for mean values. Gebelein and Asyut [53], R12 [50], Kerma Ancien, Moyen and Classique refer to Eastern Cemetery individuals [52]. Shading indicates estimated carbonate ẟ13C for individuals consuming 100% C3, mixed C3/C4, and 100% C4 sources [208]. VPDB = Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite. VSMOW = Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water.
Fig 15
Fig 15. ẟ13C and ẟ15N collagen measurements of humans from this study and relevant Egyptian and Upper Nubian Nile Valley sites prior to New Kingdom conquest 1500 BCE.
Refer to S28 Table in S1 File for mean values. Abydos, El-Badari, Naqada and Hierakonpolis [55], Gebelein and Asyut [53], Kerma Ancien, Moyen and Classique refer to Eastern Cemetery individuals [52, 54]. Shading indicates estimated collagen ẟ13C for individuals consuming 100% C3, mixed C3/C4, and 100% C4 sources [208]. VPDB = Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite. AIR = Ambient Inhalable Reservoir.
Fig 16
Fig 16. Changes in site distribution on the alluvial plain and corresponding evidence for food production economies.
A) Distribution of Neolithic period sites on the alluvial plain; B) Distribution of pre-Kerma and Kerma period sites on the alluvial plain, note increased clustering along palaeochannels. Inferred hiatus between 4000–3500 BCE based on the limited evidence for a Late Neolithic presence on the alluvial plain which suggests a significant population reduction during this period. Site locations georeferenced using existing data [27, 32, 40]. World Imagery base map sourced from: Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geophysics, and the GIS User Community (ArcGIS Pro Licence 3.0).
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