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A-Pucikwar
[apq] Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Population: No known L1 speakers. Last known speaker, Loka Raja, survived into the 1950s (Avtans and Abbi 2006). Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Aka-pujjukar, Puchikwar, Pucikwar. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Central.
Adi
[adi] Arunachal Pradesh state: East, West, and Upper Siang districts, Upper Subansiri and Dibang Valley districts; Assam state: Assam valley north hills, between Bhutan and Buruli rivers. Population: 150,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 151,090. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Abhor, Abor, Boga’er Luoba, Bori-Karko, Lhoba, Luoba. Autonym: Adi. Dialects: Ashing, Bokar (Boga’er Luoba), Bori, Karko, Komkar, Milang (Milan), Minyong, Padam, Pailibo, Pangi, Pasi, Ramo, Shimong, Tangam.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Tani.
Adi, Galo
[adl] Arunachal Pradesh state: west and east Siang, Dibang Valley (south), Lohit (east), Changlang (northeast), Upper Subansiri (west) districts; Assam state. Population: 29,200 (2011 census). A few older adult monolinguals. Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Adi, Adi-Gallong, Adi-Galo, Gallong, Galong. Autonym: Galo. Dialects: Lare, Pugo, Karka. Lare is the main dialect and is accepted by all Galo.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Tani.
Agariya
[agi] Chhattisgarh state: Bilaspur district; Madhya Pradesh state: Mandla and Rewa districts, Maikal hills; Uttar Pradesh state: Agra, Mathura, and Mirzapur districts. Population: 72,000 (2007). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Agaria, Agharia, Agoria. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari.
Ahirani
[ahr] Gujarat state; Maharashtra state: Aurangabad, Dhulia, Jalgaon, Nandurbar, and Nasik districts. Population: 1,640,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Ahiri. Dialects: None known. Ahirani may be distinct from Khandesi [khn].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Khandesi.
Ahom
[aho] Assam state. Population: No known L1 speakers. Ethnic population: No ethnic community. Status: 9 (Second language only). Alternate Names: Tai Ahom. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Tai, Southwestern.
Aimol
[aim] Assam state; Manipur state: Bishnupur district, Kha-Aimol; Chandel district, Aimol Tampak, Chandonpokpi, Chingunghut, Khodamphai, Khomayai (Khunjai), Kumbirei, Ngairong Aimol, Satu, Soibong (Khudengthabi), and Unapal; Churachandpur district, Luichungbum (Louchulbung); Senapati district, Tuikhong. Population: 2,640 (2001 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Autonym: Aimol. Dialects: Langrong. Langrong may be a distinct language. Reportedly intelligible to Koireng [nkd].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Northwestern.
Aiton
[aio] Assam state: Jorhat and Karbi Anglong districts, Ahomoni, Balipathar, Banlung, Barhula, Chakihula, Doboroni, Kaliyani, and Tengani villages. Population: 1,500 (Morey 2006). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Aitonia. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Phake [phk].
Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Tai, Southwestern.
Aka-Bea
[abj] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: South Andaman Island except northeast coast, and north and east interiors; Rutland Island except south coast; small islands southeast of Rutland; Labyrinth Islands. Population: No known L1 speakers. The last speaker died in 1931 (Van Driem 2001). Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Aka-Beada, Aka-Biada, Bea, Beada, Biada, Bogijiab, Bojigiyab, Bojigniji, Bojigyab. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Central.
Aka-Bo
[akm] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: east central coast of North Andaman Island, North Reef Island. Population: No known L1 speakers. Last speaker, Boa Sr., died in 2010. Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Ba, Bo. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Northern.
Aka-Cari
[aci] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: North Andaman Island north coast, Landfall Island, other nearby small islands. Population: No known L1 speakers. 2 ethnic Aka-Cari widows, ages 57 and 59 were reported in 1994; it is unclear whether they had any knowledge of the Aka-Cari language (Sharma 2003). Only 23 Greater Andamese people from the Aka-Kora, Aka-Cari, and Aka-Jeru tribes remained in 1951 (Van Driem 2001, pp. 215–216). Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Cari, Chari, Chariar. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Northern.
Aka-Jeru
[akj] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: interior and south North Andaman island, Sound island. Population: No known L1 speakers. Became extinct in latter 20th century. Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Jeru, Yerawa. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Northern.
Aka-Kede
[akx] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: central and north central Middle Andaman Island. Population: No known L1 speakers. The last speaker probably died by 1940 (Van Driem 2001). Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Kede. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Central.
Aka-Kol
[aky] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: southeast Middle Andaman Island. Population: No known L1 speakers. The last speaker died in 1921 (Van Driem 2001). Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Kol. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Central.
Aka-Kora
[ack] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: northeast and north central coasts of North Andaman Island, Smith Island. Population: No known L1 speakers. Last speaker, Boro, died in 2009. Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Kora. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Northern.
Akar-Bale
[acl] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: Ritchie’s Archipelago, Havelock Island, Neill Island. Population: No known L1 speakers. The last speaker died by 1940 (Van Driem 2001). Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Balawa, Bale, Balwa. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Central.
Allar
[all] Kerala state: Malappuram district, Manjeri and Perinthalmanna sub-districts, Aminikadu, Mannarmala, and Tazhecode; Palakkad district, Mannarkkad and Ottappalam sub-districts. Population: 350 (Shashi and Shri 1994). Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Aalan, Alan, Alanmar, Alar, Allan, Chatans. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 61% with Malayalam [mal], 59% with Tamil [tam].
Classification: Dravidian, Unclassified.
Amri Karbi
[ajz] Assam state: Kamrup district, Basbistha, Chandubi, Jalukbari, Jorabat, Kahi Kusi, Khetri, Loharghat, Pandu, Panikhaith, Rani block, Sonapur, and south of Brahmaputra river; Meghalaya state: Ri-Bhoi district, Nongpoh area, Barni Hat and Umling. Population: 125,000 (2003). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Amri. Autonym: Amri Karbi. Dialects: Lower Amri, Upper Amri. Reportedly unintelligible with Karbi [mjw]; intelligibility testing inconclusive regarding whether Guriaghuli area dialect is well understood in Meghalaya. Lexical similarity: 57%–68% with Karbi; 70%–86% between dialects.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karbi.
Anal
[anm] Manipur state: Chandel district, Chakpikarong, Chandel, and Engnoupal sub-districts, on Chakpi river banks. Population: 27,200 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 27,250. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Namfau. Dialects: Laizo, Mulsom. Reportedly most similar to Lamgang [lmk] (Kuki Naga).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Northwestern.
Andaman Creole Hindi
[hca] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: Port Blair, 40 villages south of Port Blair. Population: 10,000 (Singh 1994a). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Andaman Hindi. Dialects: None known. A creolization of Hindustani, Bengali [ben], and Malayalam [mal].
Classification: Creole, Hindi based.
Andh
[anr] Madhya Pradesh state; Maharashtra state: Akola, Aurangabad, Buldana, Nanded, Parbhani, and Yevatmal districts; Telangana state: Adilabad, Hyderabad. Population: 100,000 (2007). Ethnic population: 420,000 (2007). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Andha, Andhi. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified.
Angika
[anp] Bihar state: Banka, Bhagalpur, Katihar, and Purnia districts; Jharkhand state: Godda and Sahibganji districts. Population: 725,000 in India (IMA 1997). Total users in all countries: 745,330 (as L1: 743,600; as L2: 1,730). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Anga, Angikar, Chhika-Chhiki. Autonym: अंगिका (Angika). Dialects: None known. 79% inherent intelligibility of Brahmin Maithili. Lexical similarity: 81% (Brahmin) to 87% (non-Brahmin) with Darbhanga Maithili.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Unclassified.
Apatani
[apt] Arunachal Pradesh state: lower Subansiri district, Billa, Dutta, Hari, Hija, Hong, Michi Bamin, and Mudang-Tage villages in Ziro valley; Assam and Nagaland states. Population: 44,800 (2011 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Apa. Dialects: None known. May be intelligible with Nyishi [njz].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Tani.
Aranadan
[aaf] Kerala state: Kozhihkode district, Ernad sub-district; Malappuram district, Nilambur sub-district; Palakkad district; Karnataka and Tamil Nada states. Population: 200 (2001 census). Census did not include all people in interior settlements. Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Aranatan, Arnatas, Eranadans. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 63%–69% with Malayalam [mal], 53%–55% with Tamil [tam].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Malayalam.
Assamese
[asm] Arunachal Pradesh state: Changlang and Lohit; Assam state; Meghalaya state: west Garo Hills; Nagaland state: Dimapur, Kohima, Mokokchung, Wokha, and Zunheboto; West Bengal state: Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar. Population: 15,300,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 15,329,040 (as L1: 15,328,790; as L2: 250). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Assam State (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Asambe, Asami, Asamiya. Autonym: অসমীয়া (Ôxômiya). Dialects: Jharwa (Pidgin), Mayang, Standard Assamese, Western Assamese (Kamrupi).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Asuri
[asr] Chhattisgarh state: Raigarh district, Jashpur area; Jharkhand state: Gumla, Lohardaga, southern Palamau, and northern Ranchi districts of Chotanagpur Plateau; Maharashtra state; Odisha state: Sambalpur district; West Bengal state. Population: 7,000 (Van Driem 2007). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Ashree, Assur, Asura, Maleta. Dialects: Brijia (Birjia, Koranti), Manjhi.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Mundari.
Atong
[aot] Meghalaya state: south Garo Hills district; possibly Assam state: south Kamrup district. Population: 4,600 in India. Total users in all countries: 10,000. Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: A’tong. Dialects: None known. Related to Koch [kdq] and Rabha [rah].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Koch.
Awadhi
[awa] Bihar state; Delhi; Madhya Pradesh state; Uttar Pradesh: Allahabad, Bahraich, Bara-Banki, Faizabad, Gonda, Kheri, Lucknow, Pratapgarh, Rae-Bareli, Sitapur, Sultanpur, and Unnao districts. Population: 3,850,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 4,397,400 (as L1: 4,352,000; as L2: 45,400). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Abadi, Abohi, Ambodhi, Avadhi, Baiswari, Kojali, Kosali. Autonym: अवधी (Awadhi). Dialects: Gangapari, Mirzapuri, Pardesi, Uttari. Dialects are generally mutually intelligible. Lexical similarity: with Bhojpuri [bho], Rana Tharu [thr], Maithili [mai], Nepali [npi], Hindi [hin]. Also Sanskrit [san] borrowings.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Eastern, East Central.
Badaga
[bfq] Kerala state: Malappuram district; Tamil Nadu state: Nilgiris district, Kunda hills, 200 villages. Population: 134,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Badag, Badagu, Baduga, Badugu, Vadagu. Autonym: Badaga, ಬಡಗ (Badaga). Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Kannada.
Bagheli
[bfy] Chhattisgarh state: Bilaspur and Koriya districts; Madhya Pradesh state: Anuppur, Chhindwara, Dindori, Jabalpur, Mandla, Panna, Rewa, Satna, Shahdol, Sidhi, and Umaria districts; Uttar Pradesh state: Allahabad, Banda, Mirzapur, and Hamirpur districts. Population: 2,680,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bagelkhandi, Bhugelkhud, Gangai, Godwani Kawathi, Kenat, Kevat Boli, Kevati, Kewani, Kewat, Kewati, Kewot, Kumhari, Mandal, Mannadi, Riwai. Autonym: बघेली (Bagheli). Dialects: Godwani, Kumhari, Rewa. Godwani (refers to Bagheli-speaking Gonds), Kumhari (refers to Bagheli-speaking Kumhar). Though geographic and caste variation is found in Bagheli, no dialect is prevalent. Rewa area variety is considered standard. Lexical similarity: 79%–99% between all Bagheli varieties; 72%–91% with Hindi [hin].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Eastern, East Central.
Bagri
[bgq] Punjab state: Fatehabad, Firozepur, Hanumangarh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Sriganganagar, and Sirsa districts. Population: 1,890,000 in India (2011 census). 162,000 monolinguals. Total users in all countries: 2,163,000. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bagari, Bagria, Bagris, Bahgri, Baorias. Autonym: बागड़ी (Bagri). Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 81%–95% between all varietes of Bagri, 58%–63% with Eastern Punjabi [pan], 56%–69% with Hindi [hin], 56%–70% with Haryanvi [bgc], 51%–66% with Marwari [rwr], 58%–69% with Merwari [wry], 69%–76% with Shekhawati [swv], 47%–63% with Godwari [gdx], 63%–65% with Dhundari [dhd], 60%–66% with Mewati [wtm], 74% with Jandavra [jnd]. A member of macrolanguage Rajasthani [raj].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Unclassified.
Balochi, Eastern
[bgp] Punjab state: Firozpur district. Population: 800 in India (2007). Possibly L2 speakers only. Ethnic population: 95,000. Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Balochi, Baloci, Baluci. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Western, Northwestern, Balochi.
Balti
[bft] Jammu and Kashmir state. Population: 13,800 in India (2011 census). Ethnic population: 38,800. Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Baltistani, Bhoti of Baltistan, Byltae, Sbalt. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Western.
Bantawa
[bap] Sikkim state: Lingdum, Rolep, and many other parts of the state; West Bengal state: Darjeeling. Population: 14,400 in India (2001 census). Few monolinguals. Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: An Yüng, Bantaba, Bantawa Dum, Bantawa Rai, Bantawa Yong, Bantawa Yüng, Bontawa, Kirat Khambu, Kirat Khambu Rai, Kirawa Yüng, Rai. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern.
Bareli, Palya
[bpx] Madhya Pradesh state: Barwani district, Rajpur and Barwani sub-districts; Khargone district, Jhirniya sub-district; Maharashtra state: Jalgaon district, Yawal and Raver sub-districts; Dhule district, Shirpur sub-district. Population: 10,000 (2000 V. Varkey). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bareli, Pali, Palodi. Dialects: Dialect center is Madhya Pradesh, Barwani District, Choutharya village of Rajpur tahsil. Lexical similarity 62%–66% with Pauri Bareli [bfb], 67%–73% with Rathwi Bareli [bgd].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Bareli, Pauri
[bfb] Maharashtra state: Nandurbar district, Dhadgaon, Shahada, and Taloda sub-districts; Dhule district, Shirpur sub-district; Madhya Pradesh state: Barwani district, Pansemal sub-district, Nivali and Pati blocks. Population: 991,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bareli, Barewali, Barli. Dialects: Pauri Bareli not intelligible with Rathwi Bareli [bgd] or Palya Bareli [bpx]. Dialect center in Maharashtra, Nandurbar district, Dhadgaon tahsil. Lexical similarity: 81%–88% with varieties of Pauri Bareli; 68%–79% with Rathwi Bareli [bgd]; 62%–66% with Palya Bareli [bpx].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Bareli, Rathwi
[bgd] Madhya Pradesh state: Barwani district, Barwani, Sendhwa, and Rajpur sub-districts; Khargone district, Bhagawanpura, Jhirniya, and Bhikangaon sub-districts; Dewas district, Bagli sub-district; Khandwa district, Burhanpur sub-district; Dhar district, Dahi block; south Jhabua district, Rathia Bhilala; Maharashtra state: north Dhule district, Shirpur sub-district; Jalgaon district, Chopda, Raver, and Yawal sub-districts. Population: 359,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Barel, Barela, Paura, Pauri, Pawari, Pawri, Rathi, Rathia, Rathwi Pauri. Autonym: बरेली (Bareli). Dialects: Pauri Bareli [bfb] and the Rathwi Pauri dialect not intelligible with Vasavi [vas] or Bhilori [noi]. Dialect center is Madhya Pradesh, Barwani District, Chiklia. Not intelligible with Palya Bareli [bpx] or Pauri Bareli. Understood by Rathia Bhilala of Nimad, Bhilala of Sondhwa block of Jhabua District and Bhils of south Dhar District. Lexical similarity: 81%–93% with Rathwi Bareli dialects; 67%–73% with Palya Bareli [bpx]; 68%–79% with Pauri Bareli [bfb].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Bateri
[btv] Jammu and Kashmir state: Srinagar area. Population: 800 in India. 200 families. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Northwestern, Dardic, Kohistani.
Bauria
[bge] Chandigarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh states; Delhi. Population: 63,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Babri, Badak, Baori, Basria, Bawari, Bawaria, Bhoria, Vaghri. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Bazigar
[bfr] Haryana state: Ambala, Kaithal, Karnal, and Kurukshetra; Punjab state: Fatehgarh Sahib district and Patiala; Uttar Pradesh state: Muzaffarnagar and Saharanpur. Population: 58,200 (1981 census). Ethnic population: 800,000. Status: 7 (Shifting). Classification: Dravidian, Unclassified.
Bellari
Bengali
[ben] Assam state: Goalpara district; Bihar state; Jharkhand state: Dhanbad, Manbhum, Santal Parganas, and Singhbhum; Odisha state: Bales and Mayar; Tripura and West Bengal states. Population: 104,250,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 96,500,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 7,750,000 (2001 census). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in West Bengal, Tripura, Assam states (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Bangala, Bangla-Bhasa. Dialects: Barik, Bhatiari, Chirmar, Kachari-Bengali, Lohari-Malpaharia, Musselmani, Rajshahi, Samaria, Saraki, Siripuria (Kishanganjia).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Bhadrawahi
[bhd] Himachal Pradesh state: small border area; Jammu and Kashmir state: Doda district, Bhadarwah town and surrounding villages. Population: 116,000 (2011). 98,800 Bhadrawahi and 17,300 Padari (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Baderwali, Badrohi, Bahi, Bhadarwahi, Bhaderbhai Jamu, Bhaderwali Pahari, Bhadrava, Bhadri. Autonym: भद्रवाही (Bhadrawahi). Dialects: Bhalesi, Padari (Padar). Lexical similarity: 45% with Pangwali [pgg].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Bhalay
Bharia
[bha] Chhattisgarh state: Bilaspur, Durg, and Surguja districts; Madhya Pradesh state: Chhatarpur, Chhindwara, Datia, Jabalpur, Mandla, Panna, Rewa, Sidhi, and Tikamgarh districts; Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal states. Population: 197,000 (1981 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bhar, Bharat, Bhumia, Bhumiya, Paliha. Dialects: None known. They speak a variety of Hindi [hin] (Singh and Manoharan 1993).
Classification: Dravidian, Unclassified.
Bhatri
[bgw] Chhattisgarh state: Bastar district, Jagdalpur sub-district; Maharashtra state; Odisha state: Koraput district, Kotpad sub-district. Population: 334,000 (2011 census). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Alternate Names: Basturia, Bhatra, Bhattra, Bhattri, Bhottada, Bhottara, Deshia. Dialects: Intelligibility between dialects at 88% or more. Reportedly similar to Halbi [hlb]. Lexical similarity: 70%–90% between dialects, 58% with Adivasi Oriya [ort].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Oriya.
Bhattiyali
[bht] Himachal Pradesh state: Chamba district, Bhattiyat and Sihunta sub-districts; Jammu and Kashmir state; Punjab state. Population: 24,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bhateali, Bhatiali Pahari, Bhatiyali, Pahari. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Bhilali
[bhi] Karnataka state; Madhya Pradesh state: Barwani (Rajpur), southern Dhar, southern Jhabua, and Khargone (Segaon) districts; Maharashtra state: Dhule district; Rajasthan state; a few in Gujarat state. Population: 753,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bhilala, Bhili. Dialects: Parya Bhilali.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Bhili
[bhb] Gujarat state: Dohad, Panch Mahals, and Sabarkantha districts; Madhya Pradesh state: Dhar, Indore, Jhabua, Khargone, and Ratlam districts; Rajasthan state: Banswara, Dungapur, and Udaipur districts. Population: 3,290,000 (2011 census). 10,400,000 for all Bhil languages (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bhagoria, Bhil, Bhilbari, Bhilboli, Bhilla, Bhilodi, Lengotia, Vil. Autonym: भीली (Bhīlī). Dialects: Ahiri, Anarya (Pahadi), Bhilodi, Bhim, Charani, Habura, Konkani, Kotali (Kotvali, Kotwalia), Magra Ki Boli, Nahari (Baglani), Naikdi, Panchali, Patelia, Ranawat, Rani Bhil, Siyalgir, Valvi, Labani. Bhili of Ratlam District in Madhya Pradesh is inherently intelligible with Wagdi [wbr] and a connecting link between Gujarati [guj] and Rajasthani (Marwari) [mve].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Bhojpuri
[bho] Assam state; Bihar state: Champaran, Saran, and Shahabad districts; Delhi; Jharkhand state: Palamau and Ranchi districts; Madhya Pradesh state; Uttar Pradesh state: Azamgarh, Ballia, Basti, Deoria, Ghazipur, Gorakhpur, Mirzapur, and Varanasi districts; West Bengal state. Population: 50,600,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 52,405,300 (as L1: 52,245,300; as L2: 160,000). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Bajpuri, Bhojapuri, Bhozpuri, Deswali, Khotla, Piscimas, “Bihari” (pej.). Autonym: भोजपुरी (Bhōjpurī). Dialects: Northern Standard Bhojpuri (Basti, Gorakhpuri, Sarawaria), Western Standard Bhojpuri (Benarsi, Purbi), Southern Standard Bhojpuri (Kharwari), Bhojpuri Tharu, Madhesi, Domra, Musahari. May be more than 1 language. Extent of dialect variation in India and Nepal not yet determined. The cover term “Bihari” (a pejorative alternate name for Bhojpuri) is also used for Maithili [mai], and Magahi [mag]. Bhojpuri Tharu dialect is spoken by Tharu caste in Nepal and India. Distinct from other Tharu languages.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bihari.
Bhunjia
[bhu] Chhattisgarh state: Raipur district; Madhya Pradesh state: Hoshangabad district; Maharashtra state; Odisha state: Balasore (Baleshwar), Dhenkanal, Kalahandi, Keonjhar, Koraput, and Sambalpur districts, Sunabera Plateau area. Population: 6,790 (2000 USCWM). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Bhumjiya, Bhunjiya, Bunjia. Dialects: A more divergent dialect of Halbi [hlb]. Lexical similarity: 68%–72% with Kamar [keq].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Oriya.
Biate
[biu] Assam state: North Cachar Hills district; Manipur state; Meghalaya state: Jaintia hills district; Mizoram state: Aizawl district, Darlawn, New Vervek, and Ratu villages. Population: 19,000 (IMA 1997). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Baite, Bedesa, Beite, Bete, Beteh, Biete, Hadem. Autonym: Biate. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Hrangkhol [hra], and similar enough to Mizo [lus] and Hmar [hmr] that they can be read with comprehension.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Central, Mizo.
Bijori
[bix] Jharkhand state: Cowerdaga and Ranchi districts; Madhya Pradesh and Odisha states; West Bengal state: Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts. Population: 25,000 (1998 GRN). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Binjhia, Birijia, Birjia, Brijia, Burja. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari.
Bilaspuri
[kfs] Himachal Pradesh state: Bilaspur district; Punjab state: Rupnagar district. Population: 296,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bilaspuri Pahari, Kahluri, Kehloori Pahari, Kehluri, Pacchmi. Dialects: None known. 95% intelligibility of Mandeali [mjl], 94% of Kangri [xnr]. Lexical similarity: 90% with Kangri of Palampur, 86% with Mandeali, 84% with Chambeali [cdh].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Birhor
[biy] Chhattisgarh state: Raigarh district; Jharkhand state: southern Hazaribag, southern Palamau, Ranchi, and Singhbhum districts; Maharashtra state; Odisha state: Kalahandi, Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur, and Sundargarh districts; West Bengal state: Puruliya district. Population: 2,000 (Van Driem 2007). Nomadic habits make assessment difficult. Some estimates as low as 1,000 (Parkin 1991). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bihor, Birhar, Birhore, Birhul, Mankidi, Mankidia, Mankiria. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 55%–72% with Santhali [sat], Ho [hoc], Mundari [unr], and Munda [unx].
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Mundari.
Bishnupuriya
[bpy] Assam state: Cachar, Hailakandi, and Karimganj districts; north Tripura state. Population: 79,600 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 119,600. Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Bishnupria Manipuri, Bishnupriya, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Bisna Puriya. Dialects: Madai Gang (Leimanai), Rajar Gang (Ningthaunai). Though once regarded as a Bengali-Meitei creole, it retains pre-Bengali features (Masica 1991). Lexical similarity: 81%–85% between dialects in Bangladesh, 41%–45% with Bengali [ben].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Bodo Parja
[bdv] Andhra Pradesh state; Odisha state: Koraput district. Population: 50,000 (2001 IBT). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bodo Paraja, Harja, Jhaliya, Jharia, Jhodia Parja, Parajhi, Parja, Parjhi, Parji, Paroja, Poroja, Sodia Parja. Dialects: None known. Phonology and grammar show Indo-European relationship, not related to Dravidian Duruwa Parji. 86%–96% intelligibility between Bodo and Jhodia caste varieties. Lexical similarity: 76%–86% with Bodo and Jhodia caste varieties, 70%–89% with Desia.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Oriya.
Bondo
[bfw] Odisha state: Malkangiri district, Khoirput sub-district, Bondo Hills. Population: 9,000 (2002 SIL). 5,570 Upper Bondo and 3,500 Lower Bondo. Few Lower Bondo are monolingual. Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Bhonda Bhasha, Bonda, Bondo-Poraja, Nanqa Poroja, Poraja Katha, Remo, Remosum. Dialects: Upper Bondo, Lower Bondo. Lexical similarity: 70%–94% with other Bondo varieties, 45%–51% with Gutob Gadaba [gbj], 22%–32% with Upper Gata’ [gaq] (Didayi).
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, South Munda, Koraput Munda, Gutob-Remo-Geta’, Gutob-Remo.
Boro
[brx] Assam state: mainly Darrang, Goalpara, Kamrup, Lakhimpur, Nagaon, and Sibsagar districts; Manipur state: Chandel (Tengnoupal) district; Meghalaya state: West Garo Hills district, Tikrikilla sub-district, 7 villages; East Khasi Hills district; West Bengal state: Cooch-Behar, Darjeeling, and Jalpaiguri districts. Population: 1,470,000 in India (2011 census). 1,460,000 Boro, 11,500 Mech (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 1,474,380. Status: 5* (Developing). Statutory language of provincial identity in Assam (1950, Constitution, Articles 345–347). Alternate Names: Bara, Bodi, Bodo, Boroni, Kachari, Mech, Meche, Mechi, Meci. Autonym: बोडो (boḍo), बोडो भाषा (boḍo bʰāṣā). Dialects: Chote, Mech. West Bengal dialect reportedly different from Assam.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Boro-Tiwa, Boro.
Braj Bhasha
[bra] Bihar state; Delhi; Haryana state: Gurgaon district; Madhya Pradesh state: Bhind, Gwalior, and Morena districts; Rajasthan state: Bharatpur and Sawai Madhopur districts; Uttar Pradesh state: Agra region. Population: 1,560,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bijbhasha, Braj, Braj Bhakha, Bri, Brij Bhasha, Briju, Bruj, Daihaati Zabaan, Dehaati Zabaan. Autonym: ब्रज भाषा (Braj Bhāshā). Dialects: Braj Bhasha, Antarbedi (Antarvedi), Bhuksa, Sikarwari, Jadobafi, Dangi, Bhadauri (Towargarhi). Bhuksa is sometimes mentioned as a dialect of Kanauji [bjj]. Braj Bhasha is usually considered a dialect of Hindi [hin], and was the predominant literary language before the switch to Hindi in the 19th century. Chhatapur dialect is widely understood. Other dialects are standard Braj of Mathura, Aligarh, western Agra; standard Braj of Bulandshahr; standard Braj of eastern Agra, southern Morena, southern Bharatpur; Braj merging into Kanauji in Etah, Mainpuri, Budaun, and Bareilly; Braj merging into the Bhadauri subdialect in northern Morena; Braj merging into Jaipuri (Rajasthani) in northern Bharatpur and Sawai Uradhopur; Bhuksa in southern Nainital (Grierson and Konow 1903–1928).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western Hindi, Unclassified.
Brokskat
[bkk] Jammu and Kashmir state: Kargil and Ladakh districts along Indus river; Garkhon area, including Batalik, Chulichan, Dah, Darchiks, and Gurgurdo villages. Population: 10,000 (Johnstone and Mandryk 2001). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Brok-skad, Brokpa, Brokpa of Dah-Hanu, Dokskat, Kyango, Minaro. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Northwestern, Dardic, Shina.
Bugun
[bgg] Arunachal Pradesh state: West Kameng district, Nafra and Singchung sub-districts, Bichom, Diching, Dikiang, Lichini, Mangopom, Namphri, New Kaspi, Ramu, Sachita, Singchung, Situ, and Wangho villages; in mountains on both sides of Rupa river, interspersed among the Aka. Population: 900 (2001 Asia Harvest). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Kho, Khoa, Khowa. Autonym: Bugun. Dialects: None known. May be mutually intelligible with Puroik [suv] (Chowdhury 1996); Burling (2003) groups it with Puroik and Sherdukpen [sdp] and possibly also with Lish [lsh] and Sartang [onp]. Lexical similarity: low with all neighboring languages.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Kho-Bwa.
Buksa
[tkb] Uttar Pradesh state; Uttarakhand state: southwest Nainital district, Kichha and Kashipur sub-districts, 130 villages, from Keneshpur to Ramnagar; some in Bijnor and Garhwal districts. Population: 43,000 (IMA 1997). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Dialects: None known. 95% intelligibility with Rana Tharu [thr]. Lexical similarity: 58%–79% with western Tharu varieties, 58% with Madhya Ksetriya Tharu [the], 83% with Hindi [hin].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Unclassified.
Bundeli
[bns] Madhya Pradesh state: Chhatarpur, Chhindwara, Datia, Narsinghpur, Panna, Sagar, Satna, Seoni, Shivpuri and Tikamgarh districts; Maharashtra state: Bhandara and Nagpur districts; Rajasthan state; Uttar Pradesh state: Banda, Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi, and Lalitpur districts. Population: 5,630,000 (2011 census). Population estimates range up to 20,000,000. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bondili, Bundelkhandi. Autonym: बुन्देली (Bundeli). Dialects: Standard Bundeli, Lodhanti (Rathora), Chhatapur (Khatola), Banaphari, Kundri, Nibhatta, Tirhari, Gaoli, Kirari, Raghobansi, Nagpuri Hindi, Chhindwara Bundeli. Lexical similarity: 41% with Nagpuri Hindi [hin].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western Hindi, Bundeli.
Byangsi
[bee] Uttarakhand state: Pithoragarh district, Darchula and Munsyari sub-districts, Garbyang, Gunji, Nabi, Napalchyu, and Rongkang villages; in Kuthi Yangti river valley in the Himalayas on Nepal and Tibet borders; Byangs Patti from Budi south to Kuti village north. Population: 2,830 in India (2000). No monolinguals. Total users in all countries: 3,380 (as L1: 3,310; as L2: 70). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Bhotia, Byangkho Lwo, Byangkhopa, Byanshi, Byansi, Jaba, Rang, Rang Lo, Saukas, Shaukas. Dialects: Pangjungkho Boli, Yerjungkhu Boli, Kuti. Dialects of Byangs, Chaudangs and Darma valleys are unintelligible to each other (Sharma 1994). Those in Kuti (India) and Tinkar (Nepal) are closely related and quite different from those in other Byangsi villages. Tinkar variety differs from Byangsi, Chaudangsi [cdn], and Darmiya [drd] in forms of agreement affixes and basic vocabulary. Minor dialect differences correspond to geographical divisions (Sharma 2001).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Almora.
Chakma
[ccp] Arunachal Pradesh state: Changlang district, Miao sub-district, Lohit district, Chowkham sub-district, Tirap district; Assam state: Anglong, Cachar, Karbi, and North Cachar districts; Mizoram state: southwest along Karnafuli river; Tripura state: North Tripura district, Kailashahar sub-district; South Tripura district; Manipur and West Bengal states. Population: 228,000 in India (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Chakama, Changma Vaj, Takam, Tsakma. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Chamari
[cdg] Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra states; Uttar Pradesh state: Lucknow. Population: Status: Unattested. Alternate Names: Chamar, Chambhar Boli, Chambhari. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western Hindi, Unclassified.
Chambeali
[cdh] Himachal Pradesh state: Chamba district, Chamba sub-district; Jammu and Kashmir state. Population: 126,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Cameali, Chamaya, Chambiali, Chambiyali, Chamiyali Pahari, Chamrali, Chamya. Dialects: Bansbali, Bansyari, Gadi Chameali. 91% intelligibility of Mandeali [mjl], 87% of Kangri [xnr]. Lexical similarity: 90% with Palampuri Kangri [xnr], 86% with Bhattiyali [bht], 84% with Bilaspuri [kfs], 83% with Mandeali [mjl], 79% with Gaddi [gbk], 78% with Churahi [cdj].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Chamling
[rab] Sikkim state: South district; West Bengal state: Darjeeling, Regu and other parts of the state. Population: Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Camling. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern.
Changthang
[cna] Jammu and Kashmir state: Tibet border area, Changthang region east and southeast of Leh. Population: 10,100 (2000). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Byangskat, Byanskat, Champas, Changs-Skat, Changtang, Changtang Ladakhi, Rong, Rupshu, Stotpa, Upper Ladakhi. Dialects: 58%–85% intelligibility with Leh dialect of Ladakhi [lbj] with high standard deviation indicating some acquired intelligibility; 94%–95% intelligibility with Stod Bhoti [sbu] from Darcha village. Identify more with Leh Ladakhi culture than with Stod Bhoti despite lack of intelligibility. Related to Rangkas [rgk], Darmiya [drd], Byangsi [bee].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Western.
Chaudangsi
[cdn] Uttarakhand state: Pithoragarh district, Darchula and Munsyari sub-districts, Chilla, Gala, Monggong, Panggu, Rimzhim, Rongto, Rung, Sirdang, Sirkha, Song, Sosa, Syang Khola, Tangkul, Waiku, and Zipti villages; Patti Chaudangs, Kali river west bank facing Nepal border along Mahakali valley. Population: 1,830 (2000 USCWM). No monolinguals. Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Bangba Lo, Bangba-Lwo, Bangbani, Chanpa Lo, Chaudans Lo, Saukas, Shaukas, Tsaudangsi. Dialects: None known. Related to Rangkas [rgk], Darmiya [drd], and Byangsi [bee] (Sharma 1989), unintelligible with Darmiya and Byangsi (Sharma 1994).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Almora.
Chaura
[crv] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: Nicobar Islands, Chaura island. Population: 5,910 (2001 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Chowra, Tutet. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Nicobar, Chowra-Teressa.
Chenchu
[cde] Karnataka and Odisha states; Telangana state: mostly Kurnool district, Nallamalla hills. Population: 26,000 (2007). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Chenchucoolam, Chenchwar, Chensulu, Chenswar, Choncharu. Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Telugu.
Chetti, Wayanad
[ctt] Karnataka state: Bavali; Kerala state: Wayanad district, Appapara, Chekadi, Kattikkulam, Panavalli, Pulpalli, Thirunelli, and Tholpetti villages; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore, Nilgiri and Periyar districts. Population: 5,000 (2004). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Chetti, Chetty. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 62%–76% with Gowder, 65% with Jennu Kurumba [xuj], 52% with Kannada [kan].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Unclassified.
Chhattisgarhi
[hne] Chhattisgarh state: north central; Jharkhand state: Simdega; Madhya Pradesh state: Anuppur and Shahdol (Baigani dialect) districts; Maharashtra state: border areas; Odisha state: Sundargarh. Population: 16,300,000 (2011 census). 16,250,000 Chhattisgarh, 89,900 Laria, and 15,600 Pando (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Khaltahi, Laria. Autonym: छत्तीसगढ़ी (Chhattisgarhi). Dialects: Sadri Korwa, Baigani (Baiga, Bega, Bhumia, Gowro), Binjhwari, Kalanga, Bhulia, Chhattisgarhi Proper, Kavardi, Khairagarhi. Sadri Korwa spoken by Korwa people in Jashpur tahsil of Raigarh District; Baigani in Balaghat, Raipur, and Bilaspur districts of Chhattisgarh, and Sambalpur District of Odisha; Binjhwari in Raipur and Raigarh districts of Chhattisgarh; Kalanga and Bhulia dialects are spoken in Patna District of Bihar; Chhattisgarhi Proper in Raipur, Durg, Bilaspur, and other districts of Chhattisgarh. Lexical similarity: 66%–69% with Kamar [keq].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Eastern, East Central.
Chin, Bawm
[bgr] Assam state; Mizoram state: Aizawl, Chhimtuipui, and Lunglei districts; Tripura state. Population: 4,440 in India (2004). Total users in all countries: 15,140. Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Bawn, Bawng, Bom. Autonym: Bawm. Dialects: None known. Linguistically and ethnically a subgroup of the Laizou (Anal) [anm] (Matisoff et al 1996:8).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Central, Lai.
Chin, Falam
[cfm] Assam state: Karimganj district, a few villages in Cachar and North Hills districts; Mizoram, Tripura, and West Bengal states. Population: 38,900 in India (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Fallam, Halam Chin, Hallam, Tipura. Dialects: Chorei, Chari Chong, Halam, Kaipeng (Kaipang, Keipang), Kalai (Koloi), Molsom (Mursum), Rupini, Tapong, Bongcher (Bawngcher, Bondcher, Bongshi).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Central, Lai.
Chin, Hakha
[cnh] Assam and Meghalaya states; Mizoram state: Aizawi district, Champhai subdistrict, southernmost tip; Chhimtuipui district, 41 villages. Population: 28,600 in India (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Baungshe, Haka Chin, Hakha Lai, Lai, Lai Hawlh, Lai Pawi, “Haka” (pej.). Dialects: Klangklang (Thlantlang), Zokhua.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Central, Lai.
Chin, Khumi
[cnk] Mizoram state. Population: Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Kami, Khami, Khumi, Khuni, Kumi, “Khweymi” (pej.). Dialects: Khami, Khimi.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Southern.
Chin, Mara
[mrh] Mizoram state: Chhimtuipui district. 60 villages. Population: 42,400 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 62,400. Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Lakher, Maram, Mira, Zao. Autonym: Mara. Dialects: Tlongsai (Tlosai-Siaha), Hlawthai. Reportedly similar to Shendu [shl]. Affiliated with Lai (Hakha Chin) [cnh]. Tlosai-Siaha dialect is lingua franca of all Mara (Singh 1994b, Singh 1995a).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Maraic, Mara.
Chin, Matu
[hlt] Mizoram state. Population: 10,000 in India (2012). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Matupi, Nga La. Dialects: Haltu, Thui Phum.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Southern, Cho-Asho, Cho.
Chin, Paite
[pck] Assam state; Manipur state: Churachandpur district, Khuga valley, Copur Bazar; Mizoram state: Aizawl district, Champhai sub-district, 20 villages; Tripura state. Population: 79,500 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Haithe, Paite, Paithe, Parte, Vuite, Zomi, Zoukam. Autonym: Paite Chin. Dialects: Bukpi (Bukpui), Dapzal (Dapzar), Dim, Dimpi, Lamzang, Lousau, Saizang, Sihzang, Telzang (Teizang), Tuichiap.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern, Thado.
Chin, Tedim
[ctd] Assam, Manipur (south), and Mizoram (north) states. Population: 155,000 in India (1990). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Tedim, Tiddim. Dialects: Sokte, Kamhau (Kamhao, Kamhow).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern, Thado.
Chin, Thado
[tcz] Assam state; Manipur state: Chandel, Churachandpur, Senapati, and Tamenglong districts; Mizoram state: northeast; Nagaland state: Kohima district; Tripura state. Population: 313,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 346,100. Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Kuki, Kuki-Thado, Thaadou Kuki, Thado, Thado-Pao, Thado-Ubiphei, Thadou. Dialects: Changsen, Jangshen, Kaokeep, Khongzai, Kipgen, Langiung, Sairang, Thangngen, Hawkip, Shithlou, Singson (Shingsol). Several varieties, but high mutual intelligibility among dialects. Related to Kamhau (Tedim Chin [ctd] dialect), Ralte [ral], Paite Chin [pck], Zou [zom].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern, Thado.
Chin, Zyphe
[zyp] Mizoram state: Saiha district, Iana and Siata villages. Population: 3,000 in India (2000). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Vawngtu, Zophei, Zoptei, Zyphe. Dialects: Lower Zyphe, Upper Zyphe.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Maraic.
Chinali
[cih] Himachal Pradesh state: Lahul and Pattan valleys, and Gushal village. Population: 750 (1996). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Chana, Channali, Chinal, Dagi, Harijan, Shipi. Dialects: None known. Closely related to Sanskrit [san].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified.
Chiru
[cdf] Assam state: Cachar district, a village near Jirbom; Manipur state: Bishnupur district; Churachandpur district, Charoi Khullen village; Tamenglong district, Bungte, Dolang, Dolang Khunou, Kangchup, Lamdangmei, Nungshai, Sadu, Senapati, Thangzing, and Uram villages; Thoubal district, Vaithou; Nagaland state. Scattered. Population: 7,000 (2000 A. Khorong). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Chhori. Autonym: चीरू (Cīrū). Dialects: None known. Reportedly most similar to Chin Mizo [lus].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Northwestern.
Chodri
[cdi] Gujarat state: Surat and Tapi districts. Population: 111,000 (2011 census). More speakers in Tapi district. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bhil, Chaudhari, Chaudri, Chodhari, Choudhara, Choudhary, Chowdhary. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Chug
Churahi
[cdj] Himachal Pradesh state: Chamba district, Chaurah and Saluni sub-district, Bhalai; Jammu and Kashmir state: Doda and Kathua districts. Population: 75,600 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Chaurahi, Churahi Pahari, Churai Pahari. Dialects: None known. 90% intelligibility of Mandeali [mjl], 83% of Kangri [xnr], 85% of Chambeali [cdh]. Lexical similarity: 78% with Chambeali [cdh] (most similar), 70% with Palampuri Kangri [xnr] and Bhattiyali [bht], 67%–69% with Gaddi [gbk], 65% with Mandeali [mjl] and Bilaspuri [kfs], 64% with Pangi.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Darlong
[dln] Assam state: Cachar district; Tripura state: North Tripura district, Kailashahar and Kamalpur sub-districts. Population: 6,000 (1998 T. Darlong). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Dalong. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified.
Darmiya
[drd] Uttarakhand state: Pithoragarh district, Darchula and Munsyari sub-district, Baling, Baun, Bongling, Dar, Datu, Dhakar, Dugtu, Gwo, Marchha, Nanglin, Philam, Saung, Selachal, Sipoo, and Sobla villages; in Dhauli valley, from Tawaghat near Dharchula south to Sipoo north along Dhauli river. Population: 1,750 (2006 C. Willis). Ethnic population: 4,000. Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Darimiya, Darma, Darma Lwo, Darma-Lwo, Darmani, Saukas, Shaukas. Dialects: None known. Related to Rangkas [rgk], Chaudangsi [cdn] and Byangsi [bee].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Almora.
Deccan
[dcc] Gujarat state; Madhya Pradesh state: Raisen and Sehore districts; Maharashtra state: Belgaum, Bijapur, and Karnataka districts on Deccan Plateau. Population: 12,800,000 (2000). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Dakhini, Dakhni, Dakini, Dakkani, Dakkhani, Deccani, Desi. Dialects: Kalvadi (Dharwar), Bijapuri.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern, Unclassified.
Degaru
[dgu] Jharkhand state: Dumka, Jamtara; West Bengal state: Birbhum. Population: 10,000 (2000). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Dhekaru. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Unclassified.
Deori
[der] Assam state: Demaji, Lakhimpur, Jorhat, and Tinsukia districts; Arunachal Pradesh state: Lohit district. Population: 32,400 (2011 census). Ethnic population: 50,000. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Chutiya, Dari, Deuri, Dewri, Drori, Jimochaya. Dialects: May constitute its own subgroup under Bodo-Garo. Reportedly not similar to other languages. Dialect of Lakhimpur District is regarded as purest. Lexical similarity: 77%–93% with Deori varieties, 11%–16% with Bodo [brx].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo.
Desiya
[dso] Chhattisgarh state: Bastar district; Odisha state: Koraput district, Lamtaput sub-district; Nabarangapur district. Population: 227,000 (2011 census). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Trade language by tribal communities in Odisha state. Alternate Names: Deshia, Desia, Desiya Oriya, Koraput Oriya. Dialects: Intelligible with Adivasi Oriya [ort] but uses different scripts. Lexical similarity: 80%–85% with Adivasi Oriya [ort] dialects in Andhra Pradesh.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Oriya.
Dhanki
[dhn] Gujarat state: Dangs district; Maharashtra state: Jalgaon district; Karnataka and Rajasthan states. Population: 203,000 (2011 census). 151,000 Dhanki and 52,000 Tadavi (2011 census). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Alternate Names: Dangi, Dangri, Dangs Bhil, Dhanka, Kakachhu-Ki Boli, Tadavi, Tadvi Bhil. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Khandesi [khn].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Khandesi.
Dhatki
[mki] Rajasthan state: west. Population: 16,400 in India (2000). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Thar. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Marwari.
Dhimal
[dhi] Jharkhand state: Bokaro district; West Bengal state: Puruliya district, 16 villages. Population: 450 in India (2000 K. Cooper). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Dialects: Eastern Dhimal.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Dhimalish.
Dhodia
[dho] Gujarat state: Surat and Valsad districts, Dadra, Daman and Diu union territory, and Nagar Haveli; Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan states. Population: 49,100 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Dhobi, Dhore, Dhori, Dhowari, Doria. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Dhundari
[dhd] Rajasthan state: Dausa, Jaipur, and Tonk districts; possibly in Ajmer, Bundi, Jhalawar, northern Karauli, Kishangarh, Kota, and Sawai Madhopur districts. Population: 1,480,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Dhundari-Marwari, Dhundhari, Jaipuri, Jhar-sahi boli, Kai kui ki boli, Marwari. Autonym: धुन्धारी (Dhundhari). Dialects: 54% intelligibility of Marwari [rwr]; 86% of Shekhawati [swv]. Lexical similarity: 75%–89% with dialects; 62%–70% with Merwari [wry], 65%–81% with Shekhawati [swv], 46%–66% with Godwari [gdx], 56%–64% with Mewari [mtr], 64%–73% with Haroti [hoj], 62%–67% with Mewati [wtm], 59% with Hindi [hin]. A member of macrolanguage Marwari [mwr].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Marwari.
Digaro-Mishmi
[mhu] Arunachal Pradesh state: Lohit district, Changlagam, Goiliang, and Hayuliang circles, Dibang Valley district; Assam state. Population: 44,100 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 44,950. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Darang Deng, Digaro, Digaru, Mishmi, Taaon, Taraon, Taying. Dialects: None known. May not be in the Tani group, but is related. Lexical similarity: 25% with Idu-Mishmi [clk], 10% with Miju-Mishmi [mxj].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Digarish.
Dimasa
[dis] Assam state: north Cachar district and Cachar hills; Karbi Anglong and Nagaon districts; Nagaland state: Haflong district; Meghalaya and Mizoram states. Population: 137,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Dimasa Kachari, Grau Dima, Hills Kachari, Magrau. Autonym: Grao Dima. Dialects: Hasao, Hawar, Dembra, Dijuwa, Humri, Semsa, Walgong. Related to Kachari [xac].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Dimasa-Kokborok.
Dogri
[dgo] Jammu and Kashmir state: Kathua, Poonch, Reasi, and Udhampur districts; Himachal Pradesh state: Chamba and Kangra districts; Punjab state: Gurdaspur district. Population: 2,600,000 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Statutory language of provincial identity in Jammu and Kashmir (1950, Constitution, Articles 345–347). Alternate Names: Dhogaryali, Dogari, Dogri Jammu, Dogri Pahari, Dogri-Kangri, Dongari, Hindi Dogri, Tokkaru. Autonym: डोगरी (Dogri). Dialects: Dogri speakers understand each other well. Some reported difficulty understanding Kangri [xnr]. Department of Dogri at Jammu University designated Samba as the standard dialect and published textbooks based on this variety. Lexical similarity: 78% between dialects; excluding the most divergent site, others more than 86%. A member of macrolanguage Dogri [doi].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Dogri
Dotyali
[dty] Maharastra, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand states. Population: Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Eastern, Eastern Pahari.
Dubli
[dub] Gujarat state: Bharuch (Broach), Surat, Vadodara, and Valsad districts; Maharashtra state: Thane district, Dahanu and Talasari cities’ areas, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu enclaves; Karnataka and Rajasthan states. Population: 252,000 (2007). Ethnic population: 791,000 (2007). Over half the ethnic group uses Gujarati [guj] (2007). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Dubala, Dubla, Rathod, Talavia. Dialects: Dubli of Bharuch district is intelligible with Dungri dialect of Vasavi [vas].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Dungra Bhil
[duh] Gujarat state: Vadodara district, Chotaudeyapur and Naswadi sub-districts; Madhya Pradesh state: Jhabua district, Alirajpur sub-district; Maharashtra state: Dedgam sub-district; slopes of Vindhya Satpura mountains. 200 villages. Population: 100,000 (2000 IICCC). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Dungri Bhil. Dialects: None known. 84%–89% intelligibility with Bhilori [noi] of Maharashtra. Lexical similarity: 75%–85% between subgroups, 71%–87% with Bhilori and Noiri Bhili, less than 53% with Garasia [gas].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Duruwa
[pci] Chhattisgarh state: Bastar district, southeast Jagdalpur sub-district; Odisha state: Koraput district. Population: 52,300 (2011 census). Ethnic population: 100,000 (1986). 65% in Bastar, 35% in Koraput. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Dhruva, Dhurwa, Durva, Paraja, Parajhi, Parjhi, Parji, Tagara, Thakara, Tugara. Dialects: Tiriya, Nethanar, Dharba, Kukanar. Nethanar dialect is central. Lexical similarity: 90%–96% with dialects, 70%–82% with Halbi [hlb].
Classification: Dravidian, Central, Parji-Gadaba.
Dzongkha
[dzo] West Bengal state: Darjeeling and Kalimpong, just inside the Indo-Bhutan border; Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Sikkim states. Population: 11,000 in India (2007). Status: 5* (Dispersed). Alternate Names: Drokpa, Drukpa, Dukpa, Hloka, Lhoskad. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, Southern.
English
[eng] Population: 200,260,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 260,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 200,000,000 (Crystal 2003a). Status: 1 (National). Statutory national working language (1950, Constitution, Articles 343 and 348(1)). Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, English.
Eravallan
[era] Kerala state: Palakkad district, Chittoor sub-district; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore district. Population: 5,000 (2001). Ethnic population: 5,440 (2001 census). 3,890 in Kerala and 1,560 in Tamil Nadu. Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Ambuvilluvedar, Villu Vedan, Vilvedan. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 91% between Eravallan of Coimbatore and of Palakkad, 70%–74% with Tamil [tam], 59%–77% with Irula [iru], 77%–86% with Malasar [ymr].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil.
French
[fra] Puducherry Union Territory. Population: 10,000 in India (2008). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory language of provincial identity in Puducherry Union Territory (1950, Constitution, Articles 345–347 inclusive), unscheduled language. Alternate Names: Français. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Rhaetian, Oïl, French.
Gadaba, Bodo
[gbj] Andhra Pradesh state: Visakhapatnam district; Odisha state: Koraput district, Lamtaput sub-district, 40 villages; Malkangiri district, Khoirput sub-district. Population: 8,000 (2000 IICCC). All Gadaba: 41,000 (2011 census). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Boi Gadaba, Gadba, Gadwa, Godwa, Gudwa, Gutob, Gutop. Dialects: Birong Raji, Kinda Raji, Lamtaput, Koraput. Dialects mutually intelligible. Speakers in Lamtaput block have 89%–94% intelligibility in Tikrapada and Audipoda villages. Intelligibility of the Hanumal village variety is less. Lexical similarity: 69%–89% among 7 varieties in Odisha, 90% between listed dialects.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, South Munda, Koraput Munda, Gutob-Remo-Geta’, Gutob-Remo.
Gadaba, Mudhili
[gau] Andhra Pradesh state: Vizianagaram district, Salur and Pachipenta sub-districts; Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam districts. Population: 8,000 (2000 IICCC). All Gadaba: 41,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Gadaba, Gol Gadaba, Kondekar, Kondko. Dialects: 93%–98% intelligibility among dialects. Lexical similarity: 84%–94% between dialects. Different from Dravidian Mudhili Gadaba [gau] and Pottangi Ollar Gadaba [gdb].
Classification: Dravidian, Central, Parji-Gadaba.
Gadaba, Pottangi Ollar
[gdb] Odisha state: Koraput district, Nandapur and Pottangi sub-districts. Population: 15,000 (2002 M. Kurian). All Gadaba: 41,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Allar, Gadaba, Gadba, Hallari, Hollar Gadbas, Konekor, Konekor Gadaba, Mundli, Ollar Gadaba, Ollari, Ollaro, San Gadaba, Sano. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 69%–80% with 4 varieties in Odisha; 42%–47% with 1 variety in Andhra Pradesh; 52%–62% with Mudhili Gadaba [gau] in Andhra Pradesh.
Classification: Dravidian, Central, Parji-Gadaba.
Gaddi
[gbk] Himachal Pradesh state: Chamba district, Brahmaur sub-district; Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh states; Delhi. Population: 181,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bharmauri Bhadi, Gaddyali, Gadi, Gadiali, Pahari Bharmauri, Panchi Brahmauri Rajput. Dialects: Bharmauri, Macleod Ganj. 93% intelligibility of Mandeali [mjl], 97% of Kangri [xnr], 83% of Chambeali [cdh]. Lexical similarity: 74%–80% with Palamuri Kangri [xnr], 79% with Chambeali [cdh], 67%–73% with Mandeali [mjl].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Gahri
[bfu] Himachal Pradesh state: Barbog, Biling, Gumrang, Guskyar, Kardang, Kyelang, Paspara, Pyukar, and Styering, and Yurnad villages; Gahr Valley along Bhaga river from confluence with the Chandra and upstream. Population: 4,000 (1997). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Boonan, Bunan, Erankad, Ghara, Keylong Boli, Lahuli, Lahuli of Bunan, Poonan, Punan. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 39% with Sunam [ssk], 26%–39% with varieties of Chamba Lahuli (Pattani) [lae], 37% with Tinani [lbf], 26%–34% with some varieties of Central Tibetan [bod], 34% with Jangshung [jna] and Shumcho [scu], 31% with Kinnaur Bhoti [nes], 30% with Chitkuli [cik] and Nesang (Tukpa) [tpq], 24% with Lhasa dialect of Central Tibetan [bod], 23% with Kanauri [kfk].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Gamit
[gbl] Gujarat state: Surat district; some in Bharuch, Dangs, and Valsad districts; Maharashtra state: Nandurbar district; some in Dhule district. Population: 139,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Gamati, Gameti, Gamith, Gamta, Gamti, Gavit. Autonym: ગામીત (Gamit). Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Mawchi [mke].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Gangte
[gnb] Manipur state: south Churachandpur district, 37 villages; Assam and Meghalaya states. Population: 16,500 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Gante. Dialects: None known. Related to Thado Chin [tcz]. Differs little from Vaiphei [vap], Paite [pck], or Zou [zom].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern, Sizang.
Garasia, Adiwasi
[gas] Gujarat state: Banaskantha district, Danta sub-district; Sabarkantha district, Poshina sub-district; Rajasthan state: Jalor district. Population: 100,000 (1988 V. Patel). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Adiwasi Girasia, Adiwasi Gujarati, Girasia. Dialects: Understand Rajput Garasia [gra] well. Lexical similarity: 89%–96% between dialects, 75%–93% with dialects of Rajput Garasia; 79%–92% with dialects of Patelia [bhb]; 79%–93% with Wagdi [wbr]; 76%–87% with Marwari [rwr] dialects.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Garasia, Rajput
[gra] Gujarat state: Banaskantha district; Rajasthan state: Pali, Sirchi, and Udaipur districts. Population: 76,700 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Dhungri Garasia, Dungari Garasia, Dungri Grasia, Girasia, Grasia, Nyar. Autonym: गरसिया (Garasiya). Dialects: Rajput Garasia do not understand Adiwasi Garasia [gas] but intelligibility is high the other way. Lexical similarity: 94%–99% with Gujarati [guj] and Rajasthani [mve] dialects, 75%–93% with Adiwasi Garasia [gas] dialects; 76%–84% with Patelia [bhb] dialects; 79%–86% with Wagdi [wbr]; 67%–84% with Marwari [rwr] dialects.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Garhwali
[gbm] Himachal Pradesh state; Uttarakhand state: Chamoli, Dehra Dun, Pauri Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal, and Uttarkashi districts. Population: 2,480,000 (2011 census). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Gadhavali, Gadhawala, Gadwahi, Gashwali, Girwali, Godauli, Gorwali, Gurvali, Pahari Garhwali. Autonym: गढ़वळि भाख (Garhwali bhākha). Dialects: Srinagari, Tehri (Gangapariya), Badhani, Dessaulya, Lohbya, Majh-Kumaiya, Bhattiani, Nagpuriya, Rathi, Salani (Pauri), Ravai, Parvati, Jaunpuri, Gangadi (Uttarkashi), Chandpuri. Jaunsari [jns] is sometimes referred to as a dialect of Garhwali, but most say they cannot understand it. Parvati dialect also reportedly not mutually intelligible; Srinagari is literary standard; Pauri generally regarded as the sweetest; Srinagari and Pauri are very similar. Lexical similarity: 53%–84% among dialects; 54%–69% with Hindi [hin], 55%–66% with Kumaoni [kfy]. The divergent dialect varieties of Bangani, Parvati, and Ravai are no more similar to Western Pahari varieties than to Garhwali.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Garhwali.
Garo
[grt] Assam state: Goalpara, Kamrup, and Karbi Anglong districts; Meghalaya state: Garo Hills district; Nagaland state: Kohima district; Tripura state: south Tripura district, Udaipur sub-district; north Tripura district, Kailasahar and Kamalpur sub-districts; west Tripura district, Sadar sub-district; West Bengal state: Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar districts. Population: 1,150,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 1,270,000. Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Meghalaya State (1950, Constitution, Articles 347), unscheduled language. Alternate Names: Garrow, Mandi. Autonym: Mande. Dialects: A’beng (A’bengya, Am’beng), A’chick (A’chik, A’we, Chisak, Dual, Matchi), Dacca, Ganching, Kamrup. A’chick is the standardized dialect in India. A’beng dialect used in Bangladesh, but is not mutually intelligible. Reportedly most similar to Koch [kdq].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo.
Gata’
[gaq] Andhra Pradesh state: east Godavari district; Odisha state: Koraput and Malkangiri districts, Kudumulgumma and Chitrakonda sub-districts south of Bondo Hills; some in Khairput sub-district. 47 villages. Population: 3,060 (1991 census). Ethnic population: 7,370 (2001 census). In Odisha. Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Didayi, Didei, Dire, Gataq, Geta’, Getaq, Gta Asa, Gta’. Dialects: Plains Geta’, Hill Geta’. Ruhlen treats Plains Geta’ and Hill Geta’ as separate languages. Lexical similarity: 68%–93% among dialects, 27%–37% with Bondo [bfw] varieties, 22%–28% with Gadaba Gutob [gbj] dialect.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, South Munda, Koraput Munda, Gutob-Remo-Geta’, Geta’.
Godwari
[gdx] Gujarat state: Banas Kantha and north Sabar Kantha; Rajasthan state: Jhalor, Pali, and Sirohi districts. Population: 3,000,000 (2001 census). Status: 6b (Threatened). Dialects: Balvi, Khuni, Madahaddi, Sirohi. 88%–92% intelligibility of Marwari [rwr]. Lexical similarity: 70% between dialects; 62%–75% with Merwari [wry], 45%–69% with Shekhawati [swv], 51%–73% with Mewari [mtr], 46%–66% with Dhundari [dhd], 44%–67% with Haroti [hoj], 62%–74% with Marwari [rwr].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Marwari.
Gondi
Gondi, Adilabad
[wsg] Maharashtra state: south Chandrapur, Nanded, and Yavatmal districts; Telangana state: Adilabad, north Karimnagar, and Warrangal districts. Population: 300,000 (2015 M. Penny). All Gondi speakers: 2,910,000 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Gunjala Gondi, Koyang, Nirmal, Raj Gond, Telugu Gondi. Autonym: కోయంగ్ (Koyang), గోండి (Gondi). Dialects: Utnoor Gondi, Rajura. Intelligibility of Northern Gondi [gno] 49%–58%. A member of macrolanguage Gondi [gon].
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Gondi, Aheri
[esg] Maharashtra state: Gadchiroli district; Telangana state: Adilabad district. Population: 150,000 (2015 B. Kurian). All Gondi speakers: 2,910,000 (2011 census). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Koyam, Raj Gond. Autonym: कोयम (Koyam), गोंडी (Gondi). Dialects: Sironcha, Etapally Gondi, Bhamragarh. Sironcha dialect understood best by the others, with 73%–98% intelligibility. 49%–58% intelligibility of Northern Gondi [gno]. Lexical similarity: 34%–43% with Adilabad Gondi [wsg]. A member of macrolanguage Gondi [gon].
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Gondi, Northern
[gno] Madhya Pradesh state: Balaghat, Betul, Chhindwara, Mandla, and Seoni districts; Maharashtra state: Amravati, Bhandara, Nagpur, Wardha, and Yavatmal districts. Population: 1,950,000 (1997 BSI). All Gondi speakers: 2,910,000 (2011 census). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Gaudi, Ghond, Godi, Gondi, Gondiva, Gondu, Gondwadi, Goondile, Goudi, Goudwal. Dialects: Betul, Chhindwara, Mandla, Seoni, Amravati, Bhandara, Nagpur, Yavatmal. Inherent intelligibility between dialects 94%–97%. Speakers tested in other dialects understood Amravati 94%–97%; Betul 83%–96%, and Seoni 82%–97%. 58%–78% intelligibility of Adilabad Gondi [wsg] and Aheri Gondi [esg]. Different from Muria [hlb], Maria [mrr] of Garhchiroli, Dandami Maria [daq], and Koya [kff]. Lexical similarity: 58%–90% among dialects. A member of macrolanguage Gondi [gon].
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Gowlan
[goj] Madhya Pradesh state: Hoshangabad district; Maharashtra state: Amravati district, and among Korku [kfq] people; some in north Karnataka state. Population: 20,200 (2000). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Dialects: Dialects in Maharashtra and Karnataka reportedly different. May be more similar to Hindi [hin] (Central zone) than to Marathi [mar] (Southern zone).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern, Unclassified.
Gowli
[gok] Madhya Pradesh state; Maharashtra state: Amravati district. Population: 35,000 (IMA 1997). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Nand. Dialects: Nand, Ranya, Lingaayat, Khamla. Nand subdialects have 93% or higher intelligibility with Khamla dialect. Dialect used in Madhya Pradesh appears more similar to Marathi [mar] (Southern zone) than to Hindi [hin] (Central zone). Lexical similarity: 84%–92% between the Ranya and Nand dialects.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western Hindi, Unclassified.
Great Andamanese, Mixed
[gac] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: Strait island, about 100 km northeast of Port Blair. Population: No known L1 speakers. The last fluent speaker, Nao, died in 2009 (2009 A. Abbi). Ethnic population: 55. Status: 9 (Dormant). Alternate Names: Andamese, Jeru. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese.
Groma
[gro] Sikkim state: North Sikkim district, Chumbi valley. Population: 14,000 in India (2007 Asia Harvest). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Tromowa. Dialects: Upper Groma, Lower Groma.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, Southern.
Gujarati
[guj] Gujarat state: both shores of Gulf of Khambhat; Maharashtra state: Nandubar and Nashil districts; Rajasthan state: Jalor and Sirohi districts; Daman and Diu Union Territory. Population: 59,380,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 55,200,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 4,180,000 (2001 census). Total users in all countries: 60,588,970 (as L1: 56,408,970; as L2: 4,180,000). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Gujurat State; Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu union territories (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Gujerathi, Gujerati, Gujrathi. Autonym: ગુજરાત (Gujarātī). Dialects: Standard Gujarati (Mumbai Gujarati, Nagari, Patnuli, Saurashtra Standard), Gamadia (Ahmedabad Gamadia, Anawla, Brathela, Charotari, Eastern Broach Gujarati, Gramya, Patani, Patidari, Surati, Vadodari), Parsi, Kathiyawadi (Bhawnagari, Gohilwadi, Holadi, Jhalawadi, Sorathi), Kharwa, Kakari, Tarimuki (Ghisadi). The Parsi dialect has less than 55,000 speakers, with only a very few knowing how to read or write it (2107 R. Doctor). Memoni ethnic group reportedly speak a Kacchi [kfr] variety.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Gujarati.
Gujari
[gju] Jammu and Kashmir state: Anantnag district, Doru, Kukernag, and Pahalgam sub-districts; Baramulla district, Uri sub-district; Ganderbal district, Kangan sub-district; Kulgam district; Kupwara district, Handwara, Karnah, and Kupwara sub-districts; Pulwama district, Tral sub-district; Shopian district. Population: 1,290,000 in India (2011 census). Ethnic population: 1,600,000 (2002). In Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Delhi. Total users in all countries: 1,653,000. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Gogri, Gojari, Gojri, Gujar, Gujer, Gujjari, Gujuri, Gurjar, Hindki, Kashmir Gujuri, Parimu, Rajasthani Gujuri. Autonym: گوجری (Gojri). Dialects: Ajiri of Hazara. Poonchi [phr] may be understood by others and form the basis for a standard dialect. In Pakistan, Eastern Gujari appears more similar to Northern Hindko [hno] or Pahari-Potwari [phr]. Western Gujari appear to understand the Eastern dialect better than vice versa. Comparison with India varieties is needed. Lexical similarity: 60% between Uttar Pradesh and Pakistan, 76% with Poonchi. A member of macrolanguage Rajasthani [raj].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Unclassified.
Gurung
[gvr] Sikkim state: South district; West Bengal state: Darjeeling district. Population: 33,000 in India (2007). Ethnic population: 112,000. Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Gurung Kura, Tamu Kyi, Western Gurung. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Gurungic.
Hajong
[haj] Assam state: Goalpara, and Nagaon districts; Meghalaya state: West Garo Hills district, west side; West and East Khasi hills districts; Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengal states. Population: 71,800 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 79,800. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Haijong, Hajang, Hazong. Autonym: Hajong Bhasa, হৃজং ভাশা (Hajong Bhasa). Dialects: Banai, Dalu. No prestige or standard dialect recognized. Intelligible with Hajong of Bangladesh. Lexical similarity: 82%–91% between Banai dialect of Koch [kdq] and mainstream Hajong varieties, 74%–77% between Dalu dialect and mainstream Hajong varieties, 79% between Banai dialect of Koch [kdq] and Dalu, 54%–64% with Assamese [asm], 63%–67% with Bengali [ben], 74%–85% with Hajong of Bangladesh.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Halbi
[hlb] Andhra Pradesh state; Chhattisgarh state: Bastar district plains; Madhya Pradesh state: Balaghat district; Maharashtra state: Gondia district; Odisha state: Koraput district. Population: 966,000, all users. L1 users: 766,000 (2011 census). L2 users: 200,000 (2001 C. Thomas). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Alternate Names: Bastari, Halabi, Halba, Halvas, Halvi, Holva, Mahari, Mehari. Dialects: Adkuri, Bastari, Bhunjia, Chandari, Gachikolo, Govari of Balaghat, Kawari, Kunbi, Mahari (Mahara, Mehari), Muri (Muria), Sundi. Bhunjia and Kawari dialects considered more divergent dialects. Reportedly a creole language. Grierson and Konow called it a dialect of Marathi [mar] for convenience, but noted similarities to Bhatri [bgw], a dialect of Odia [ory] (Grierson and Konow 1903–1928).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Haroti
[hoj] Madhya Pradesh state: Neemuch district, 3 other border areas; Rajasthan state: Baran, Bundi, Jhalawar, and Kota districts. Population: 2,940,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Hadauti, Hadothi, Hadoti, Hara, Harauti. Autonym: हाड़ौती (Haroti). Dialects: None known. 45% intelligibility with standard Marwari [rwr], 57%–67% with Merwari [wry], 58%–66% with Shekhawati [swv], 44%–67% with Godwari [gdx], 61%–71% with Mewari [mtr], 64%–73% with Dhundari [dhd], 52%–70% with Mewati [wtm], 55%–62% with Bagri [bgq], 63%–77% with Hindi [hin]. A member of macrolanguage Rajasthani [raj].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Unclassified.
Haryanvi
[bgc] Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh states; Delhi. Population: 9,810,000 in India (2011 census). Ethnic population: 16,000,000 (1992 SIL). Total users in all countries: 9,810,900 (as L1: 9,810,890; as L2: 10). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bangaru, Banger, Bangri, Bangru, Chamarwa, Desari, Hariani, Hariyani, Haryani, Jatu. Autonym: हरियाणवी (Hariyāṇvī). Dialects: Bangaru Proper, Deswali, Khadar. Good intelligibility among dialects, but Haryanvi is not intelligible with Hindi [hin]. Reportedly most similar to Braj Bhasha [bra]. Lexical similarity: 92% among dialects.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western Hindi, Unclassified.
Hindi
[hin] Widespread in north India: northern Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand states; Delhi. Population: 612,000,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 339,000,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 273,000,000 (2016). Total users in all countries: 615,475,540 (as L1: 341,208,640; as L2: 274,266,900). Status: 1 (National). Statutory national language (1950, Constitution, Article 343), also statutory provincial language in Bihar State and 12 other jurisdictions. Alternate Names: Modern Standard Hindi. Autonym: मानक हिन्दी (Mānak Hindī), हिन्दी (Hindī). Dialects: Khari Boli (Dehlavi, Kauravi, Khadi Boli, Khari, Khariboli, Vernacular Hindustani). Formal vocabulary borrowed from Sanskrit, de-Persianized, de-Arabicized. Literary Hindi, or Hindi-Urdu, has 4 varieties: Hindi (High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, Literary Hindi, standard Hindi); Urdu [urd]; Dakhini; Rekhta. Hindustani, though not listed separately in India, refers here to the unofficial lingua franca of northwest India. Has a lexical mixture in varying proportions of Hindi (vocabulary derived from Sanskrit) and Urdu (vocabulary derived from Persian or Arabic).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western Hindi, Hindustani.
Hinduri
[hii] Himachal Pradesh state: Solan district, Nalagarh, Ramshahr, and surrounding villages. Population: 47,800 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Handuri. Dialects: Reportedly most similar to Bilaspuri [kfs]. Lexical similarity: 67% with Baghliani dialect of Mahasu Pahari [bfz] spoken in Arki, 60% with Lower Mahasui dialect of Pahari [bfz], 56% with Upper Mahasui dialect of Pahari [bfz] and Sirmauri [srx], 64% with Hindi.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Hmar
[hmr] Assam state: Cachar district; Manipur state: south, Churachandpur, Tipaimukh, 35 villages; Mizoram state: Aizawl district; Tripura state. Population: 99,000 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Hamar, Hmari, Mhar. Autonym: Hmar. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Zou [zom].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Central, Mizo.
Ho
[hoc] Bihar state; Jharkhand state: Purbi Singhbhum district, Kolhan, Seraikella; East Singhbhum district, Dhalbhum sub-district; Odisha state: Koenjhar and Mayurbhanj districts; West Bengal state. Population: 1,420,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bihar Ho, Ho haram, Ho jagar, Lanka Kol. Autonym: Ho kaji. Dialects: Lohara, Chaibasa-Thakurmunda. Most understand Chaibasa and Thakurmunda dialects well; 90%–92% comprehend narrative discourse. Kherwari (Khanwar, Kharar, Kharoali, Kharwari) is group name for Ho, Mundari [unr], Munda [unx], and Santhali [sat], closely related languages, and other smaller languages or dialects. Lexical similarity: 85% between most dialects, except for 3 on Ho area east and south edges.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Mundari.
Holiya
[hoy] Madhya Pradesh state: Balaghat and Seoni districts; Karnataka and Maharashtra states. Population: 500 (2002 survey). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Gohllaru, Golari-Kannada, Holar, Holari, Hole, Holian, Holu. Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Kannada.
Hrangkhol
Hruso
[hru] Arunachal Pradesh state: West Kameng district, Thrizino sub-district, Balipho, Bhalukpong, Buragaon, Dijungonia, Gijiri, Gohainthan, Husigaon, Jamiri, Karangonia, Khuppi, Palizi, Polatari, Raghupam, Raindogonia, Tania, Tulu, and Yayom villages; East Kameng district, Seppa sub-district, Pisang village. Population: 3,000 (Van Driem 2007). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Aka, Angka, Angkae, Gusso, Hrusso, Tenae. Dialects: Hruso, Levai (Bangru). No apparent wider affiliation within Tibeto-Burman. Varieties sometimes grouped under Tibeto-Burman as Hruish. Levai is similar to Miji [sjl] and may be a distinct language. Lexical similarity: 9% between Koro [jkr] and the Hruso dialect [hru]. Both are highly dissimilar to neighboring languages.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Hrusish.
Idu-Mishmi
[clk] Arunachal Pradesh state: Dibang Valley district; Assam and West Bengal states. Population: 11,000 in India (2001 census). 2,200 monolinguals. Total users in all countries: 11,080. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Ida, Idu, Midhi, Nedu, Yidu Luoba, “Chulikata” (pej.), “Chulikotta” (pej.), “Sulikota” (pej.). Dialects: Midu, Mithu. Reportedly most similar to Digaro-Mishmi [mhu]. Different from Adi [adi]. May be a dialect of Mising [mrg]. Lexical similarity: 7% with the Miju-Mishmi dialect of Miju-Mishmi [mxj], 25% with Digaro-Mishmi [mhu].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Digarish.
Indian Sign Language
[ins] Scattered. Population: 1,500,000 in India (2008 S. Panda). Estimates vary: 5.9 million profoundly deaf in India (2014 IMB); 8 million deaf signers (2017 Indian Sign Language Research and Training Centre). Total users in all countries: 4,100,000. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: IPSL, ISL, Indo-Pakistani Sign Language, Urban Indian Sign Language. Dialects: Bangalore-Chennai-Hyderabad Sign Language, Mumbai-Delhi Sign Language. Most sign language varieties in south Asia appear to be related, but there is considerable variation, which has only been partially assessed. Some scholars regard most varieties in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and possibly Nepal as dialects of one language called Indo-Pakistani Sign Language (IPSL), while others feel at least some varieties should be recognized as separate languages. The ISO standard currently (as of 2017) distinguishes ISL from Pakistan Sign Language [pks], West Bengal Sign Language (Kolkata Sign Language) [wbs], and Nepalese Sign Language [nsp]. Some villages, such as Alipur, Karnataka have an indigenous sign language unrelated to ISL (Panda 2012). Some influence from British Sign Language [bfi] in the fingerspelling system and a few other signs developed indigenously in India.
Classification: Sign language.
Indo-Portuguese
[idb] Kerala state: Kannur; Maharashtra state: Korlai near Mumbai; Daman and Diu Union Territory. Population: 4,940 in India (Cardoso 2006). Relatively few monolinguals, even in Korlai (Cardoso 2006). Total users in all countries: 7,160. Status: 6b (Threatened). Dialects: Cochin (Kochi), Diu, Cannanore.
Classification: Creole, Portuguese based.
Irula
[iru] Kerala state: Palakkad district, Attapady and Walayar sub-districts; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore, Nilgiri, Periyar districts; Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka states. Population: 11,900 (2011 census). Ethnic population: 200,000 (2003 E. Udayakumar). Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Erukala, Irava, Irulan, Irular, Irular Mozhi, Irulavan, Iruliga, Iruligar, Kad Chensu, Korava. Autonym: இருளா (Irula). Dialects: Mele Nadu Irula (Malanadu, Southern Irula), Northern Irula (Kasaba, Kasava, Kasuba), Vette Kada Irula (Irula Pallar, Vettakada), Irula Urali, Attapady Irula, Walayar Irula (Urali Irula). Dialects: Vette Kada 73% intelligibility of Mele Nadu; Northern Irula 83% of Mele Nadu; no intelligibility of Tamil [tam] (1993 Irula survey); Vette Kada 94% of Attapady; Walayar 84% of Attapady. (2004 Palakkad survey). Lexical similarity: 78%–86% between Mele Nadu dialect varieties, 67%–70% with Northern Irula, 64%–66% with Vette Kada, 47%–50% with Tamil [tam]. Attapady has 73%–75% with Mele Nadu and 85%–89% with Vette Kada. Walayar has 74%–79% with Attapady, 76% with Vette Kada, and 69% with Mele Nadu.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil.
Jad
[jda] Himachal Pradesh state: Kinnaur district; Uttarakhand state: Uttarkashi district, Harsil subdistrict, Jadang and Nilang villages in Jad Ganga gorges. Population: 300 (Breton 1997). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bhotia, Dzad, Rongba. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Spiti Bhoti [spt].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, Western.
Jangshung
[jna] Himachal Pradesh state: Kinnaur district, Morang sub-district, Asrang, Jangi, and Lippa villages. Population: 1,990 (1998 survey). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Central Kinnauri, Jangiam, Jangrami, Thebarskad, Thebor, Thebör Skadd, Zangram, Zhang-Zhung. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 70% with Shumcho [scu], 65% with Sunam [ssk], 51% with Chitkuli Kinnauri [cik], 49% with Pahari Kinnauri [kjo].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Jarawa
[anq] Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory: interior and south central Rutland Island; central and south interiors of South Andaman Island; Middle Andaman Island, west coast, 70 square km reserve. Population: 340 (Kumar 2012). 340 monolinguals (Kumar 2012). Monolingual group, with some language contact with Hindi [hin] (Kumar 2012). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Dialects: None known. Different from Önge [oon] and Sentinel [std].
Classification: Andamanese, South Andamanese.
Jaunsari
[jns] Himachal Pradesh state: Shimla district; Uttar Pradesh state: Saharanpur district; Uttarakhand state: Dehra Dun district, Kalsi, Tiuni, and Chakrata sub-district, Jaunsar-Bawar area. Population: 137,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Jansauri, Jaunpuri, Jaunsauri, Pahari. Dialects: Jaunsari, Jaunsari-Bawari. 97% intelligibility between dialects. Perceived by some as a Garhwali [gbm] dialect; but users perceive Garhwali as distinct and report lack of intelligibility. Lexical similarity: 70%–77% between dialects, 63%–70% with Garhwali dialects [gbm], 64% with Kumaoni [kfy], 66% with Hindi [hin], 51%–64% with Sirmauri [srx].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Juang
[jun] Odisha state: north Angul, east Dhenkanal, south Keonjhar districts. Population: 30,400 (2011 census). No monolinguals. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Juango, Patra-Saara, Patua, Puttooas. Autonym: ଜୁଆଙ୍ (Juang). Dialects: Keonjhar-Pal. Not closely related to other languages. Lexical similarity: 20%–22% with Kharia [khr].
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, South Munda, Kharia-Juang.
Juray
Kacchi
[kfr] Gujarat state: Rann of Kutch area; Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh states. Population: 1,030,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 1,080,000. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Cuchi, Cutch, Kachchhi, Kachchi, Kachi, Katch, Katchi, Kautchy, Kutchchi, Kutchie. Dialects: Jadeji. Reportedly similar to Sindhi [snd].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Northwestern, Sindhi.
Kachari
[xac] Assam state: north Cachar district, Cachar hills; Nagaland state: Kohima district; Dimapur district, Dhansiri sub-district. 16 villages. Population: 16,000 (2011 census). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Cachari, Plains Kachari. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Boro-Tiwa, Boro.
Kadar
[kej] Kerala state: Thrissur district; Palakkad district, Chittoor sub-district; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore district. Population: 1,960 (2004 survey), decreasing. Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Kada. Dialects: None known. Phonology related to Tamil [tam] and vocabulary related to Malayalam [mal] (Menon 1996). Lexical similarity: 56%–62% with Tamil [tam], 62%–65% with Malayalam [mal], 67% with Mala Malasar [ima], 61%–63 % with Kanikkaran [kev].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Malayalam.
Kaikadi
[kep] Madhya Pradesh state: Betul district; Maharashtra state: Amravati district. Population: 25,900 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kaikadia, Kaikai, Kokadi. Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil.
Kalanadi
[wkl] Kerala state: Wayanad district, southwest. Population: 750 (2004 survey). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 75% with Malayalam [mal], 74% with Paniya [pcg], 72%–75% with Wayanad Kurichiya [kfh], 79%–83% with Mullu Kurumba [kpb], 88% with Pathiya [pty], 81% with Kunduvadi [wku].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern.
Kamar
[keq] Chhattisgarh state: Raipur district; Madhya Pradesh state: Rewa district; Maharashtra state. Population: 40,000 (2003 BI). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 68%–72% with Bhunjia [bhu], 66%–69% with Chhattisgarhi [hne], 68% with Oriya [ory], 61% with Hindi [hin], 27% with Telugu [tel].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Eastern, East Central.
Kamta
[rkt] West Bengal state: Darjeeling, Koch Bihar, Jalpaiguri, and Uttar Dinajpur districts; Assam state: Dhubri and Kokrajhar districts. Population: 476,000 in India (2011 census). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Kamtapuri, Koch Rajbanshi, Rajbangsi, Rajbanshi, Rajbansi, Rajbongshi. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Kanashi
[xns] Himachal Pradesh state: Kullu district, Kullu sub-district, Bios valley glen, Malana (Malani) village area. Population: 1,400 (Chauhan 2002). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Kanasi, Malani. Dialects: None known. No intelligibility with any Tibeto-Burman languages of Lahul-Spiti and Kinnaur (Chauhan).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Kanauji
[bjj] Uttar Pradesh state: Auraiya, Etawah, Farrukhabad, Hardoi, Kanpur, Pilibhit, Mainpuri, and Shahjahanpur districts. Population: 9,500,000 (2001 USCWM). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Bhakha, Braj, Braj Kanauji, Dehati, Hindi, Kannauji. Autonym: देहाती (Dehati). Dialects: Kanauji Proper, Tirhari, Transitional Kanauji. Transitional Kanauji dialect is between Kanauji and Awadhi [awa]. Grierson and Konow call it a form of Braj Bhasha [bra]. The variety spoken in Kannauj and Farrukhabad is considered the pure form (Grierson and Konow 1903–1928). Lexical similarity: 84%–97% between all varieties of Kanauji, 72%–76% with Bundeli [bns], 70%–78% with Braj Bhasha [bra], 83%–94% with Hindi [hin].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western Hindi, Unclassified.
Kangri
[xnr] Himachal Pradesh state: Hamirpur, Kangra, and Una districts; Punjab state: Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur districts. Population: 1,120,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kangra-Dogri, Pahari, Pahari Kangri. Dialects: Hamirpuri, Palampuri. Lexical similarity: Palampuri dialect; 90% with Bilaspuri [kfs] and Chambeali [cdh], 89% with Mandeali [mjl], 83% with Bhattiyali [bht], 80% with the MacLeod Ganj dialect of Gaddi [gbk]. A member of macrolanguage Dogri [doi].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Kanikkaran
[kev] Kerala state: Ernakulam, Koliam, Kozhikode, and Trivandrum districts, Nedumangadu and Neyyattinkara sub-districts; Tamil Nadu state: Kanniyakumari and Tirunelveli districts. Population: 19,000 (2007). Ethnic population: 19,000. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kanikkar, Kannikan, Kannikaran, Kannikharan, Malampashi. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 71%–80% between Kanikkaran varieties in Kerala, 67%–71% between Kanikkaran in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, 66%–75% with Malayalam [mal], 59%–65% with Tamil [tam].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil.
Kanjari
[kft] Uttar Pradesh state: Aligarh, Etawah, Farrukhabad, Kheri, and Sitapur districts; Rajasthan state: Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Bundi and Tonk districts; Bihar state: Madubani, Purnea and Saharsa districts; Maharashtra state: Pune, Satara, Kolhapur, Sangli, Thane, Bombay, Nasik districts; Madhya Pradesh state: Pune, Satara, Kolhapur, Sangli, Thane, Bombay, Nasik districts; New Delhi. Population: 206,000 (2011 census), all users. L1 users: 91,200 (1995). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kagari, Kangar Bhat, Kangri, Kanjri. Dialects: Kuchbandhi. May be in the Punjabi group.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified.
Kannada
[kan] Mainly Goa and Karnataka states; Andhra Pradesh state: Anantapur; Maharashtra state: Latur district; Tamil Nadu and Kerala states; small border areas of last 4 states. Population: 56,400,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 43,500,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 12,900,000 (2001 census). Total users in all countries: 56,463,310 (as L1: 43,563,310; as L2: 12,900,000). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Karnataka (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Banglori, Canarese, Havyaka, Kanarese, “Madrassi” (pej.). Autonym: ಕನ್ನಡ (Kannaḍa). Dialects: Bellary, Bijapur, Gulbarga, Kumta, Aine Kuruba, Jeinu Kuruba, Nanjangud. About 20 dialects; Badaga [bfq] may be one.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Kannada.
Karbi
[mjw] Arunachal Pradesh state: Papumpare district, Balijan sub-district; Assam state: Cachar, Darrang, Karbi Anglong, Lakhimpur, Marigaon, Nagaon, and Sonitpur districts in Mikir and Rengma hills; Meghalaya state: Jaintia district; Nagaland state: Dimapur area foothills. Population: 529,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Karbi Karbak, Manchati, Nihang, Puta, “Mikir” (pej.), “Mikiri” (pej.). Autonym: Arleng Alam. Dialects: Chingthang (Jynthong), Mirlong, Rong Kethang (Rengkhang, Rongkhang). Lexical similarity: 82%–96% between dialects.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karbi.
Kashmiri
[kas] Himachal Pradesh state: Chamba and Lahul Spiti districts in Kashmir valley; Jammu and Kashmir state: Anantag, Badgam, Bandipore, eastern Baramula and Kupwara, Doda, Ganderbal, Kargil, Kishtwar, Kulgam, west Leh, Ranban, and Shupian districts. Population: 6,770,000 in India (2011 census). 6,610,000 Kashmiri, 39,700 Kishtwari, and 125,000 Siraji (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 6,914,780. Status: 4 (Educational). Statutory language of provincial identity in Jammu and Kashmir (1950, Constitution, Articles 345–347). Alternate Names: Cashmeeree, Cashmiri, Kacmiri, Kaschemiri, Keshur, Koshur. Autonym: کٲشُر (Koshur), कॉशुर (Koshur). Dialects: Bakawali, Bunjwali, Standard Kashmiri, Kishtwari (Kashtawari, Kashtwari, Kathiawari, Kistwali), Miraski, Poguli, Rambani, Riasi, Shah-Mansuri, Siraji of Doda, Siraji-Kashmiri, Zayoli, Zirak-Boli. Transitional dialects to Punjabi [pan]. Kashtawari dialect is standard, other dialects are influenced by Dogri [dgo].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Northwestern, Dardic, Kashmiri.
Katkari
[kfu] Gujarat state: Bharuch, Dang, Surat, and Sabarkantha districts; Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Amboli and Dapada Panchayat areas; Maharashtra state: Raigad and Thane districts, Sahayadri Range foothills; Rajasthan state: Jhadol, Mubusha, Onga, and Samicha Parebati police station areas. Population: 12,000 (2007). Ethnic population: 294,000. Kathodi. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Katakari, Katari, Kathodi, Katvadi. Dialects: Northern Katkari, Central Katkari, Southern Katkari. Referred to as a dialect of Marathi [mar]. 89%–96% intelligibility between dialects. Lexical similarity: 67%–75% with Marathi [mar], 77%–90% among dialects.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern, Konkani.
Khaling
[klr] Sikkim state: West and South districts, scattered; West Bengal state: Darjeeling district. Population: Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Khael Baat, Khael Bra, Khael Braa, Khalinge Rai. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western.
Khamba
[kbg] Arunachal Pradesh state: West Siang district, Singa sub-district, Mankota, Nuykkang, Nyering, Tashigong, and Yortung villages in Yang Sang Chu valley. Population: 1,330 (1991). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Khamba Khaadi. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified.
Khamti
[kht] Arunachal Pradesh state: Siang district, Namsai subdistrict, Barpathar, Chakham, Kheram, M. Pong, Man Khao, Memong, and Mime villages; Lohit district, Inten, Mahang, Mamareng, Nanam, Nathaw, and Ningro villages; Assam state: Lakimpur district, Barigaon, Barkhamti, Barpathar, Deotola, Sribhuyan, Tipling, and Tunijan villages; Dibrugarh district. Population: 5,000 in India (Bradley 2007a). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Hkamti, Kham-Tai, Khampti, Khamti Shan, Khantis, Tai Kham Ti. Dialects: Assam Khamti, North Burma Khamti, Sinkaling Khamti.
Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Tai, Southwestern.
Khamyang
[ksu] Assam state: Tinsukia district, Pawaimukh village. Population: 50 (2003 S. Morey). Ethnic population: 800. Status: 8a (Moribund). Alternate Names: Khamiyang, Khamjang, Shyam, Tai Khamyang, Tai Nora. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Phake [phk] of Assam and Shan [shn] of Myanmar.
Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Tai, Southwestern.
Khandesi
[khn] Gujarat state; Maharashtra state: Dhule district, Sakri sub-district; Nasik district, Satna sub-district; Nandurbar district, Nandurbar, and Shahada sub-districts. Population: 15,900 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Dhed Gujari, Khandeshi, Khandeshi Bhili, Khandish, Maharashtra Bhil. Dialects: Dangri, Kunbi (Kunbau), Rangari, Khandesi, Kotali Bhil. All varieties of Khandesi tested at 90% or higher intelligibility with each other. A group of Kukna in Dhule District speak Khandesi.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Khandesi.
Kharia
[khr] Jharkhand state: Ranchi district, Khunti sub-district, Kolebira and Thethaitangar Anchal; Simdega sub-district; Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, Durg, Jashpur, Raigarh, Raipur, East Singhbhum, and West Singhbhum districts; Odisha state: Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur, and Sundargarh districts; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Assam, Tripura, West Bengal states. Dhelki dialect mainly in northwest Gangpur (Raigarh), Jashpur, and Sundargarh; Dudh dialect is in south Gangpur (Raigarh) Ranchi, and western Sambalpur. Population: 298,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 298,256 (as L1: 298,240; as L2: 16). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Haria, Khadia, Khariya, Kharvi, Khatria, Kheria. Autonym: Khaɽiyā. Dialects: Dhelki Kharia, Dudh Kharia, Mirdha-Kharia.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, South Munda, Kharia-Juang.
Kharia Thar
[ksy] Jharkhand state, East Singhbhum district, Chakulia, Dhalbhumgarh, Dumaria, Ghatsila, Musabani and Potka blocks; a few in West Singhbhum district; West Bengal state: Bankura district, Indpur, Raipur, and Ranibandh blocks; Purulia district, Balrampur, Barabazar, Bundwan, Hura, Manbazar, Puncha, and Purulia Muffasil blocks; West Medinipur district, Binpur block. Population: 25,000 (2007 SIL). Ethnic population: 25,500 (2007 SIL). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Erenga, Kheria, Pahari, Sabar. Dialects: A Western subdialect of Bengali [ben] (Grierson and Konow 1903–1928). Lexical similarity: 57%–90% among varieties of Kharia Thar, 53%–63% with Bengali [ben], 51%–67% with Odia [ory], 57%–75% with Lodhi [lbm].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Khasi
[kha] Assam state: Cachar, Kamrup, Lakhimpur, Nagaon, and North Cachar Hills districts; Meghalaya state: Jaintia Hills, and East and West Khasi Hills districts; Manipur, Tripura, and West Bengal states. Population: 1,050,000 in India (2011 census). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Meghalaya State (1950, Constitution, Articles 345–347 inclusive), unscheduled language. Alternate Names: Kahasi, Kassi, Khasa, Khashi, Khasiyas, Khuchia. Autonym: Khasi. Dialects: Bhoi-Khasi, Khasi (Cherrapunji, Sohra), Khynrium, War. Bhoi Khasi in East Khasi Hills, Nongpoh block, and Nonglung in East Khasi Hills, Umksning block are very different from standard Khasi, with different word order. Many varieties have only partial mutual inherent intelligibility. War dialect is separate from War-Jaintia [aml]. Cherrapunji (Sohra) is the standard. Lexical similarity: 75% between War dialect and standard Khasi.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khasian.
Khirwar
[kwx] Chhattisgarh state: Surguja district, at Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh borders. Population: 25,800 (2011 census). Census uses Kalari as the name. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kalari, Kherwari, Khirwara. Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Khowar
[khw] Jammu and Kashmir state. Population: 19,200 in India (2000). Status: 5* (Dispersed). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Northwestern, Dardic, Chitral.
Kinnauri
[kfk] Himachal Pradesh state: Kinnaur and Lahaul Spiti districts, Chauhra to Sangla and north along Satluj river to Morang, upper Ropa river valley villages; Rampur and Shimla area; Kashmir, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh states. Population: 98,600, all users. L1 users: 83,600 (2011 census). L2 users: 15,000. Status: 3 (Wider communication). Alternate Names: Kanauri, Kanaury Anuskad, Kanawari, Kanawi, Kanoreunu Skad, Kanorin Skad, Kanorug Skadd, Kinnaura Yanuskad, Kinner, Kinori, Koonawure, Kunawari, Kunawur, Lower Kinnauri, Malhesti, Milchan, Milchanang, Milchang, Tibas Skad. Dialects: Dialect at Nichar has 79% inherent intelligibility of Sangla. Other varieties have functional intelligibility of each other. Related languages: Kanashi [xns], Chitkuli Kinnauri [cik], and Jangshung Tukpa [jna]. Lexical similarity: 76%–90% among varieties.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Kinnauri, Bhoti
[nes] Himachal Pradesh state: Kinnaur district, Morang sub-district, Nesang village in upper Kinnauri Sutlej river basin; Puh sub-district, Puh village; possibly Charang and Kuno villages. Population: 6,790 (2000 USCWM). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Bhotea of Upper Kinnauri, Bod-Skad, Bud-Kat, Myamkat, Myamskad, Nyamkat, Nyamskad, Puh, Sangs-Rgyas, Sangyas. Dialects: None known. May be more than 1 language. Lexical similarity: 71% with Tukpa [tpq], 63% with Mane village, 59% with Darcha village, 54% with Tibetan [bod].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Kinnauri, Chitkuli
[cik] Himachal Pradesh state: Kinnaur district, Nichar subdistrict, Chitkul and Rakchham villages in Sangla valley, Baspa river area. Population: 1,060 (1998 survey). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Chitkhuli, Chitkuli, Kanauri, Kinnauri, Thebarskad, Tsitkhuli, Tsíhuli. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 46% with Kinnauri [kfk], 51% with Jangshung [jna], 43% with Shumcho [scu], 38% with Sunam [ssk].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Kinnauri, Pahari
[kjo] Himachal Pradesh state: throughout Kinnaur district. Population: 6,330 (1998 survey). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Boli, Chamang Boli, Lower Kinnauri, Orasi, Ores, Sonar Boli, “Harija” (pej.), “Harijan Boli” (pej.), “Harijan Kinnauri” (pej.). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Kisan
[xis] Jharkhand state: Palamu district; Odisha state: Sambalpur and Sundargarh districts; West Bengal state: Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts. Population: 206,000 (2011 census). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Birhor, Koda, Kola, Kora, Kuda, Kunha, Kunhar, Kunna, Kunrukh, Kunuk, Mirdha, Morva, Nagesia, Nageswar. Classification: Dravidian, Northern.
Koch
[kdq] Assam state: Goalpara and Nagaon districts; Meghalaya state: West Garo Hills district; Bihar, Tripura, and West Bengal states. Population: 36,400 in India (2011 census), increasing. No monolinguals. Total users in all countries: 42,400. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Koc, Kocch, Koce, Kocha, Kochboli, Konch. Dialects: Harigaya, Margan (Dasgaya), Tintekiya, Wanang. Tintekiya in Meghalaya is intelligible with same dialect in Bangladesh; Tintekiya not intelligible with other Koch dialects; Koch-Rabha and Harigaya are mutually intelligible with Wanang; Dasgaya and Harigaya are mutually intelligible; these form a dialect chain (Koch-Rabha-Wanang-Harigaya-Dasgaya-Tintekiya). Lexical similarity: 90% between Tintekiya Koch of India and Bangladesh; Tintekiya: 44%–55% with other Koch dialects; Kock: 31%–39% with Rongdani Rabha [rah], 13%–17% with Garo [grt]. Lexical borrowing is heavier when it comes to high register vocabulary; Koch has borrowed words from Bangla [ben], Assamese [asm] and Hajong [haj].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Koch.
Koda
[cdz] Bihar state; West Bengal state: Bankura and Bardhaman districts. Population: 47,300 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 48,600. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kaora, Kora, Korali, Korati, Kore, Mudi, Mudikora. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 49%–55% with Santhali [sat], 61%–67% with Mundari [unr], 57%–60% with Kol [ekl]; wordlist contained 19% Bengali [ben] words.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Mundari.
Kodaku
[ksz] Chhattisgarh state: Surguja district; Jharkhand state: Garhwa and Palamau districts; Uttar Pradesh state: Sonbhadra district. Population: 15,700 (1991 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Koraku, Korwa. Dialects: None known. A subgroup of Korwa [kfp] (Parkin 1991). Lexical similarity: 82%–96% between varieties, 50%–70% with Korwa [kfp].
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari.
Kodava
[kfa] Karnataka state: Coorg (Kodagu) and Mysore districts, Mercara area; Kerala state: Wayanad district. Population: 114,000 (2011 census). Ethnic population: 200,000. 100,000 in Kodagu District; 100,000 in Karnataka District and major cities. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Coorg, Coorgi Kodava, Kadagi, Khurgi, Kodagu, Kotagu, Kurja, Kurug. Autonym: ಕೊಡವ (Kodava). Dialects: None known. May be more than 1 language. 66% intelligibility of Malappuram [pcg]. Lexical similarity: 72% with Malappuram Paniya [pcg].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Kodagu.
Koireng
[nkd] Manipur state: Bishnupur district, 3 villages south of Moirang; Chandel district, 2 villages near Palel; Senapati district, Saikul and Kangpokpi subdistricts, 5 villages; Nagaland state. Population: 3,000 (2002 BCA). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Koirng, Kolren, Koren, Kwoireng, Liangmai, Liangmei, Liyang, Liyangmai, Lyengmai, Quoireng. Dialects: None known. Not intelligible with any related speech varieties (1991 P. Khasung). Lexical similarity: 62%–68% with Aimol [aim], 60%–66% with Purum [pub], 64% with Kharam Naga [kfw].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Naga.
Kok Borok
[trp] Assam and Tripura states. Population: 953,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 958,000. Status: 4 (Educational). Statutory language of provincial identity in Tripura State (1964, Official Languages Act No. 19 (as amended)), not a Schedule VIII language. Alternate Names: Halam, Kakbarak, Kohkborohk, Kokbarak, Kokborok, Tipura, Tripura, Tripuri, Usipi Mrung. Autonym: Kok Borok, ককবরক (Kok borok). Dialects: Jamatia, Noatia (Tipra), Debbarma. Debbarma is spoken by the royal family and is medium of communication with the other dialects; understood by all, but not vice versa.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Dimasa-Kokborok, Kok Borok.
Kolami, Northwestern
[kfb] Maharashtra state: Nanded, Wardha, and Yavatmal districts; Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh states. Population: 128,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Kolam, Kolamboli, Kolami, Kolamy, Kolmi, Kulme. Autonym: कोलामी (Kolami). Dialects: Madka-Kinwat, Pulgaon, Wani, Maregaon. Northwestern [kfb] and Southeastern Kolami [nit] not inherently intelligible. Neither is intelligible of Bodo Parja [bdv], Gadaba [gau], or Pottangi Ollar Gadaba [gdb]. Lexical similarity: 61%–68% with Southeastern Kolami [nit].
Classification: Dravidian, Central, Kolami-Naiki.
Kolami, Southeastern
[nit] Maharashtra state: Chandrapur and Nanded districts; Telangana state: Adilabad district. Population: 10,000 (1989 F. Blair). 1,500 speakers of Naiki (Van Driem 2007). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Dialects: Metla-Kinwat, Utnur, Asifabad, Naiki. Not intelligible with Northwestern Kolami [kfb]. Rao (1950) reports another dialect in Chinnoor and Sirpur taluks of Adilabad District. The Naiki dialect is different from Naikri (Zvelebil 1970:13). Lexical similarity: 85%–88% with Naiki and other Southeastern Kolami dialects, 83% with the Metla-Kinwat and Utnur, 86% with Asifabad and Utnur, 60%–74% with Northwestern Kolami [kfb].
Classification: Dravidian, Central, Kolami-Naiki.
Koli, Kachi
[gjk] Gujarat state: Kachchh district, Rann, centered in Bhuj area. Population: 400,000 in India (1998). 100,000 Kachi Koli, 250,000 Rabari, 50,000 or more Vagri Meghwar, Katai Meghwar, and Zalavaria Koli. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bajania, Kachi, Kachi Gujarati, Katchi, Kohli, Kolhi, Koli, Kori, Kuchi, Kuchikoli, Vagari, Vagaria, Vaghri. Dialects: Kachi, Rabari (Rahabari), Kachi Bhil, Vagri (Kachi Meghwar), Katai Meghwar, Zalavaria Koli.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Gujarati.
Koli, Wadiyari
[kxp] Gujarat state: Wadhyar town area. Population: 404,000 in India (2000). Total users in all countries: 563,000. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Wadaria, Wadhiara, Wadiyara, Wadiyara Koli, Wadiyari. Dialects: Tharadari Koli. Mewasi and Wadiyari are almost the same linguistically and are converging as a caste. Dialects listed are distinct sociolinguistic endogamous ethnic groups. Lexical similarity: 83% with Parkari Koli [kvx], 78% with Vaghri [vgr], 76% with Kachi Koli [gjk].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Gujarati.
Kom
[kmm] Manipur state: Churachandpur, Seanapati, and Tamenglong districts, 22 villages. Population: 15,100 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Kom Rem. Autonym: Kom-tong. Dialects: Kolhreng. Kolhreng may be a distinct language.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Northwestern.
Konda-Dora
[kfc] Andhra Pradesh state: East Godavari, Srikakulam, and Vizianagaram districts (Konda-Dora); Odisha state: Koraput district (Kubi); Assam state. Population: 60,700 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Konda, Kubi, Porja. Autonym: కొండ (Konda). Dialects: Konda-Dora (Konda), Kubi. Konda and Kubi dialects mutually inherently intelligible. Lexical similarity: 83% between Konda-Dora and Kubi dialect, 28%–36% with Telugu [tel].
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Konda-Kui, Konda.
Konkani
[knn] Gujarat state: Valsad district; Dadra and Nagar Haveli; Maharashtra state: Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sindhudung, and Thane districts; probably in Mumbai. Population: 2,190,000 in India (2011 census). 2,150,000 Konkani, 17,200 Kudumbi, and 23,600 Malwani (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 2,195,750. Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Goa State (1992, Constitution, Amendment 71). Alternate Names: Amchigela, Bankoti, Central Konkan, Concorinum, Cugani, Kathodi, Katvadi, Konkan Standard, Konkanese, Konkani Mangalorean, Kunabi, North Konkan. Autonym: कोंकणी (Konknni). Dialects: Agari of Kolaba, Parabhi (Damani, Kayasthi), Koli, Kiristav, Dhanagari, Bhandari, Thakuri (Thakari, Thakri, Thakua, Thakura), Karhadi, Sangamesvari (Bakoti, Bankoti), Ghati (Maoli), Mahari (Dhed, Holia, Parvari), Chitapavani, Malwani (Malvani), Kudumbi (Kudubi). Dialects closely related; Chitapavani recognized as standard Konkani. Local fishermen use the Koli dialect (Hukkeri). Related to Katkari [kfu] (dialects: Kathodi, Katvadi), Varli [vav], Phudagi [phd], Samvedi [smv], Mangelas. A member of macrolanguage Konkani [kok].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern, Konkani.
Konkani
Konkani, Goan
[gom] Maharashtra state: Ratnagari district, south coast strip; Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala states. Population: 3,630,000 in India (2000). Total users in all countries: 3,693,900. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Goan, Gomataki, Konkani, Southern Kanara. Autonym: Konknni, कोंकणी (Konknni). Dialects: Bardeskari (Gomantaki), Sarasvat Brahmin, Chitpavani (Konkanasths), Daldi (Nawaits), Kudali (Malvani), Mangalore Standard Konkani (Goan). Daldi and Chitapavani [knn] are intermediate varieties between Goan Konkani [gom] and standard Konkani [knn]. A member of macrolanguage Konkani [kok].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern, Konkani.
Koraga, Korra
[kfd] Karnataka state: Dakshina Kannada, and Udupi districts; Kerala state: Kannur, and Kasargod districts; possibly Tamil Nadu state. Population: 14,000 (2007 census). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Koragar, Koragara, Korangi, Korra. Dialects: Ande, Onti, Tappu. Related to Tulu [tcy], Bellari [brw]. Not intelligible with Mudu Koraga [vmd], Tulu [tcy], or Kannada [kan]. Structural differences in phonology with Mudu Koraga. According to Bhat (1968), there are 4 dialects: Onti (spoken in Udupi), Tappu (in Hebri), Mudu (in Coondapur), Ande (in Mangalore).
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tulu, Koraga.
Koraga, Mudu
Korku
[kfq] Madhya Pradesh state: Betul district, Betul city area and north; Hoshangabad and East Nimar (Khandwa) districts; Maharashtra state: Akola, Amravati, and Buldana districts. Population: 727,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bondeya, Bopchi, Korki, Kuri, Kurku, Ramekhera. Autonym: कोर्कू (Korku). Dialects: Bouriya, Bondoy, Ruma (Kurku-Ruma), Mawasi (Muasi, Muwasi). Dialects in northern Maharashtra and south central Madhya Pradesh constitute one language; 82% to 97% intelligibility among them; Bouriya most widely understood. Lexical similarity: 76%–82% with Laki Bouriya dialects.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Korku.
Korlai Creole Portuguese
Koro
[jkr] Arunachal Pradesh state: East Kameng district. Population: 1,500 (2011). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Aka Koro. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 9% with Hruso [hru]. Both are highly dissimilar to neighboring languages.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified.
Korwa
[kfp] Bihar state; Chhattisgarh state: Bilaspur, Jashpur, Korba, Raigarh, and Surguja districts; Jharkhand state: Gumla, Garhwa, and Palamau districts; Odisha state: Mayurbhanj and Sundargarh districts; Uttar Pradesh state: Mirzapur district; Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and West Bengal states. Population: 28,500 (2011 census). Few monolinguals. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Ernga, Singli. Dialects: Majhi-Korwa. Lexical similarity: 71%–92% between dialects, 50%–70% with Kodaku [ksz], 26%–36% with local Sadri [sck] spoken by Dihari Korwa. Lexical similarity with Sadri (an Indo-Aryan language) shows noticeable influence of Sadri on Korwa.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Mundari.
Kota
[kfe] Tamil Nadu state: Gudalur, Kilkotagiri, Kollimalai, Kotagiri, Kundah, Sholur Kokkal, Trichicady settlements; a few in Aravankavu, Coonoor, Indunagar, Ooty, and Wellington; Chennai. Population: 930 (2001 census). Ethnic population: 1,400. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Knof, Kohatur, Kotar, Kotha, Kother-Tamil, Kotta, Kov, Kowe-Adiwasi, Kuof. Dialects: Ko Bashai. Lexical similarity: 35% with Badaga [bfq], 38% with Tamil [tam], 36% with Malayalam [mal], 24% with Toda [tcx].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Toda-Kota.
Koya
[kff] Chhattisgarh state: Bastar district; Maharashtra state; Odisha state: Koraput district, Malkangiri subdistrict; Telangana state: south of Godavari river, adjoining districts north of the river. Population: 455,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Kavor, Kaya, Koa, Koi, Koi Gondi, Koitar, Koyato, Koyi, Raj Koya. Autonym: Koya, कोया (Koya), కోయ (Koya). Dialects: Malkangiri Koya, Podia Koya (Gotte Koya), Jaganathapuram Koya (Godavari Koya, Gommu Koya), Dorli (Chintoor Koya, Dor Koi, Dora, Dora Koi, Dorla Koitur, Dorla Koya, Korla). Linguistic center is Chintoor. Malkangiri and Podia are more divergent. Separate from Northern Gondi [gno], Adilabad Gondi [wsg], and Aheri Gondi [esg].
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Konda-Kui, Manda-Kui, Kui-Kuvi.
Kudiya
[kfg] Karnataka state: Dakshina, Kannada, and Kodagu districts; Kerala state: Kannur, and Kasargod districts; Tamil Nadu state. Population: 2,800 (2007). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Male Kudiya. Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tulu.
Kudmali
[kyw] Assam state: Darrang, Golaghat, Jorhat, and Sonitpur districts; Jharkhand state: east side; Odisha state: Keonjhar, Mayourbhanj, and Sundargargh districts; West Bengal state: Bankura Malda, west Midnapur, Nadia, and west Purulia districts. Population: 37,000 in India (IMA 1997). Total users in all countries: 37,230. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bedia, Dharua, Khotta, Kurmali, Kurmali Thar, Kurumali. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 58%–89% between varieties, 61%–86% with Panchpargania [tdb], 58%–72% with Magahi (Khortha) [mag], 51%–73% with Sadri [sck], 46%–53% with Odia [ory], 41%–55% with Bengali [ben], 44%–58% with Hindi [hin].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bihari.
Kui
[kxu] Odisha state: Ganjam, Kandhamal, and possibly Koraput districts; Ganjam, Udayagiri area; Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu states. Population: 941,000 (2011 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Kanda, Kandh, Khond, Khondi, Khondo, Kodu, Kodulu, Kuinga, Kuy. Dialects: Khondi, Gumsai.
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Konda-Kui, Manda-Kui, Kui-Kuvi.
Kukna
[kex] Gujarat state: Dangs and Valsad districts; Karnataka state: Dakshina Kannada (Kanara) district; Maharashtra state: Dhule, Nasik, and Thane districts, Dadra and Nagar Haveli; Rajasthan state. Population: 517,000, all users. L1 users: 417,000 (2011 census). L2 users: 100,000 (1998). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Alternate Names: Kanara, Kanara Konkani, Kokna, Kokni. Autonym: कुक्णा (Kukana). Dialects: None known. Dhule District Kukna has 98%–100% intelligibility with Khandesi [khn].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern, Konkani.
Kulung
[kle] Sikkim state: Assam Lingzey, Zoom and many other places; Uttarakhand state: Dehradun; West Bengal state: Jalpaiguri district; Assam state. Population: Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Kholung, Khulung, Khulunge Rai, Kulu Ring. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern.
Kumaoni
[kfy] Uttarakhand state: Almora, Bageshwar, Champawat, Nainital, Pithoragarh, and Udhamsingh Nagar districts; Almora and north Nainital (Central Kumaoni); Pithoragarh (Northeastern Kumaoni); southeast Nainital (Southeastern Kumaoni); west of Almora and Nainital (Western Kumaoni). Population: 2,080,000 (2011 census). 472,000 monolinguals (1998 SIL). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Kamaoni, Kumau, Kumauni, Kumawani, Kumgoni, Kumman, Kunayaoni. Autonym: कुमाँऊनी (Kumaaũũnii). Dialects: Central Kumaoni, Northeastern Kumaoni, Southeastern Kumaoni, Western Kumaoni. Reportedly, eastern dialects are different. Names sometimes listed for dialects or subgroups are: Askoti, Bhabari of Rampur, Chaugarkhiya, Danpuriya, Gangola, Johari, Khasparjiya, Kumaiya Pachhai, Pashchimi, Phaldakotiya, Kumaoni, Rau-Chaubhaisi, Sirali, Soriyali. Most closely related to Garwhali [gbm] and Nepali [npi].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Central Pahari.
Kumarbhag Paharia
[kmj] Jharkhand state: Godda district, Sundar Pahardi sub-district; Pakaur district except southernmost block; Odisha state: Mayurbhanj; West Bengal state: Bankura, Barddhaman, and Murshidabad districts. Population: 12,500 (Bhaskararao 2006). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kumar, Mad, Mal, Maler, Malti, Malto, Maltu, Paharia, Pahariya. Dialects: None known. Low comprehension of Mal Paharia [mkb]. Related to Kurux [kru]. Lexical similarity: 80% with Mal Paharia [mkb].
Classification: Dravidian, Northern.
Kumbaran
[wkb] Kerala state: Kozhikode, Malappuram, and Wayanad districts, Ernakkulam, Kannur, Palakkad, and Trissur; all states in peninsular India. Population: 10,000 (2004 NLCI). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Adi Andhra, Kusavan. Dialects: None known. Reportedly cannot understand Telugu [tel] on Wayanad District radio. Lexical similarity: 48% with Telugu [tel].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern.
Kunduvadi
[wku] Kerala state: Kozhikode district, Vythiri sub-district, Cheeyambam, Irulambam, Manaluvayal, Pakkam, and Porakady villages; Wayanad district, Pulpalli, Purakkadi, and Puthadi villages. Population: 1,000 (2004 SIL). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Dialects: Similar to Malayalam [mal] but with peculiar intonation and dialect virtually unintelligible to others (Shashi and Shri 1994, Menon 1996). Lexical similarity: 65% with Malayalam [mal], 61% with Aranadan [aaf], 83% with Pathiya [pty], 81% with Kalanadi [wkl].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern.
Kupia
[key] Andhra Pradesh state: East Godavari and Vishakhapatnam districts. Population: 6,600 (2007). Ethnic population: 79,000 (2007). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Valmiki. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Oriya.
Kurichiya
[kfh] Kerala state: Kannur, Kozhikode, and Wayanad districts, Mananthavady and Vythiri sub-districts in Wayanad. Population: 29,400 (2004 survey). Ethnic population: 32,800 (2001 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Kowohans, Kurichchan, Kurichchia, Kurichia, Kurichiyars, Kuruchans. Dialects: Kunnam, Wayanad. Lexical similarity: 60%–66% between dialects; Wayanad dialect 67%–71% with Malayalam [mal].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern.
Kurmukar
[kfv] Assam state: Barpeta, Goalpara, and Dhubri districts; Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tripura, and West Bengal states. Population: 3,000 (2000 SIL). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Kamar, Karmakar, Karmokar, Kumbhakar, Kumhar, Umar. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Kurumba, Alu
[xua] Tamil Nadu state: east Nilgiri Hills. Population: 2,500 (1997). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Alu Kurumba Nonstandard Kannada, Hal Kurumba, Pal Kurumba. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 80% between Alu Nonstandard Kannada and Pal varieties.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Kodagu.
Kurumba, Attapady
[pkr] Kerala state: Palakkad district, Attapady sub-district. Population: 1,370 (1991 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kurumba, Pal Kurumba. Dialects: None known. Separate from Alu Kurumba [xua] and Kurumba Kannada [kfi]. Despite dissimilarity between Kurumba, Muduga [udg], and Irula [iru], each group uses their mother tongue to communicate with each other. Lexical similarity: 82% with Muduga [udg]; 61%–70% with Irula [iru], 50% with Alu Kurumba [xua], 52% with Kurumba Kannada, 55% with Malayalam [mal], 58% with Tamil [tam].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern.
Kurumba, Betta
[xub] Karnataka state: Chamrajnagar district, Gundlupet sub-district; Kodagu district, Somvarpet and Virarajendrapet sub-districts; Mysore district, Heggadadevanakote and Piriyapatna sub-districts; Kerala state: Wayanad district, Bathery, Mananthavady and Vythiri sub-districts; Tamil Nadu state: Nilgiri district, Gudalur and Panthalur sub-districts. Population: 32,000 (2003 NLCI), increasing. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Kadu Bhasha, Kadu Kurumba, Kurubara Bhashe, Nanga Man Pagi, Urali Kurumba. Autonym: பெட்டக் குறும்பர் (Peṭṭak kuṟumpar). Dialects: A nonstandard variety of Tamil [tam] or Kannada [kan]. May be same as Betta Kurumba dialect in Coorg District. Lexical similarity: 59%–77% among groups that are called Betta Kurumba.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil.
Kurumba, Jennu
[xuj] Andhra Pradesh state; Karnataka state: Mysore and Kodagu districts; Kerala state: Wayanad district. Tamil Nadu and Karnataka states’ border; east of Kerala state border; North Nilgiri Hills. Population: 35,000 (IMA 1997). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Jen Kurumba, Jennu Kurumba, Jennu Nudi, Kattu Nayaka, Naik Kurumba, Naikan, Nonstandard Kannada, Shola Nayakan, Ten Kurumba. Dialects: Possibly the same as Jeinu Kuruba dialect of Kannada [kan]. Lexical similarity: 61%–83% among varieties called Jennu Kurumba, less than 60% with Betta Kurumba [xub] dialects.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Kodagu.
Kurumba, Kannada
[kfi] Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore district, Pollachi; Dindigul district, Sirumalai and Palani; Teni district, Cumbum Valley; Chingalpattu, Dharmapuri, Salem, and Vellore districts; Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh states. Population: 180,000 (2000). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Canarese, Kannada, Korambar, Kuramwari, Kuremban, Kuruba, Kuruban, Kurubar, Kurubas Kuruma, Kuruman, Kurumans, Kurumar, Kurumba, Kurumban, Kurumbar, Kurumbas, Kurumvari, Palu Kurumba, Southern Nonstandard Kannada. Autonym: கன்னட (Kannada). Dialects: Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Pudukottai.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Kodagu.
Kurumba, Mullu
[kpb] Kerala state: Wayanad district, Sulthan Bathery and Vythiri sub-districts; Tamil Nadu state: Nilgiri district, Gudalur sub-districts, Cherangodu and Erumad villages, 10 hamlets. Population: 26,000 (2004 survey). 25,000 in Wayanad; 1,000 in Gudalur of Nilgiri. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 89%–92% between Mullu Kurumba varieties in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, 73%–77% with Malayalam [mal], 56%–65% with Tamil [tam], 22%–36% with Kannada Kurumba [kfi], 29%–41% with other Kurumba languages.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Kodagu.
Kurux
[kru] Chhattisgarh state: Raigarh and Surguja districts; Jharkhand state: Ranchi district; Odisha state: Jharsuguda and Sundargarh districts; West Bengal state: Jalpaigiri district; Assam, Bihar, and Tripura states. Population: 1,990,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 2,044,200. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Kadukali, Kurka, Kurukh, Urang, Uraon. Autonym: कुड़ुख़ (Kudukh). Dialects: Oraon. Kisan [xis] and the Oraon dialect have 73% intelligibility. Oraon becoming standard. Related to Kumarbhag Paharia [kmj]. Somec differences from Nepali Kurux [kxl], but mutually intelligible. Lexical similarity: 70%–80% with Nepali Kurux [kxl].
Classification: Dravidian, Northern.
Kuvi
[kxv] Odisha state: Ganjam, Kalahandi, Koraput, and Phulbani districts; Andhra Pradesh state: Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam, and Vizianagaram districts. Population: 176,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Jatapu, Khondh, Khondi, Kond, Kuvi Kond, Kuvinga, Kuwi. Autonym: కువి (Kuvi). Dialects: Laxmipur, Rayagada, Dongria Khond.
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Konda-Kui, Manda-Kui, Kui-Kuvi.
Ladakhi
[lbj] Himachal Pradesh state: Lahaul Spiti district; Jammu and Kashmir state: western Leh district, 250 villages and hamlets. Population: 15,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 27,000. Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Ladak, Ladakh, Ladakh Skat, Ladaphi, Ladhakhi, Ladwags. Autonym: ལ་དྭགས་ཀྱི་སྐད། (Ladaks skat). Dialects: Leh (Central Ladakhi), Shamma (Lower Ladakhi, Sham, Shamskat), Nubra Ladakhi. Perhaps 30%–40% intelligibility of Tibetan [bod]. Leh users comprehend 90% of Zangskari [zau] and Changthang [cna]. Nubra and Shamma not adequately intelligible with Leh to use the same educational, literacy, or development materials. Changthang and Zanskar, while understanding Stod Bhoti [sbu] better than Leh dialect, identify more with Leh Ladakhi culture. 58% to 85% intelligibility of Leh by Changthang, 73%–81% by Zanskar. Lexical similarity: 71%–83% with Purik [prx], 53%–60% with Tibetan, 84%–94% among 5 main dialects.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Western.
Lambadi
[lmn] Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and West Bengal states. Population: 5,080,000 (2011 census). 1,580,000 Banjari, 50,300 Gorboli, 3,280,000 Lambadi, and 171,000 Sugali (2011 census). Ethnic population: Estimates range up to 40,000,000 for the total group. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bangala, Banjari, Banjori, Banjuri, Brinjari, Gohar-Herkeri, Goola, Gormati, Gurmarti, Kora, Labhani, Labhani Muka, Lamadi, Lamani, Lambani, Lambara, Lavani, Lemadi, Lumadale, Singali, Sugali, Sukali, Tanda, Vanjari, Wanji. Autonym: బంజార (Banjara). Dialects: Maharashtra Lamani, Karnataka Lamani (Mysore Lamani), Andhra Pradesh Lamani (Telugu Lamani).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Unclassified.
Lamkang
[lmk] Manipur state: Chandel district, 6 villages near Shuganu; 6 villages in Chalong area; 18 villages in Palel, Chandel town, and Sibong area; Nagaland state: Dimapur. Population: 10,000 (1999 census). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Lamkang Naga, “Hiroi-Lamgang” (pej.), “Lamgang” (pej.). Autonym: Lamkaang. Dialects: None known. Reportedly most similar to Anal Naga [anm].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Northwestern.
Lepcha
[lep] Sikkim state: Dzongu district; West Bengal state: Darjeeling district, Kalimpong. Population: 47,300 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 66,730 (as L1: 66,500; as L2: 230). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Lapche, Nünpa, Rongke, Rongpa, Róng, Róng-ríng, Róngkup. Dialects: Ilammu, Tamsangmu, Rengjongmu. Classification uncertain; has been classified both in Himalayan and Naga groups.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Lepcha.
Lhomi
[lhm] West Bengal state: Darjeeling. Population: 1,320 in India (2000 USCWM). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Lhoket, Lhomi dzyükki keccyok, Lhomiki keccyok, Shing Saapa, Syingsaaba. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang.
Limbu
[lif] Assam state; Sikkim state: West district; West Bengal state: Darjeeling district. Population: 40,800 in India (2011 census). Ethnic population: 177,000 (2007). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Limbo, Limboo, Lumbu, Yakthung Pan. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern.
Lish
[lsh] Arunachal Pradesh state: West Kameng district, Lish, Lish Gompache, Lish Gompalok villages. Population: 2340 Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Kishpignag, Lish Monpa, Lishpa, Monpa. Dialects: None known. Reportedly most similar to Chug [cvg].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Kho-Bwa.
Lisu
[lis] Arunachal Pradesh state: Changlang district, Miao and Vijoynagar sub-district, 6 villages, Gandhigram being largest. Population: 2,700 in India (Bradley 2007b). Status: 5* (Dispersed). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Ngwi-Burmese, Ngwi, Central.
Lodhi
[lbm] Jharkhand state: West Bengal state border area; Odisha state: Mayurbhanj district, Sadar subdistrict, Morada and Suliapada; Balasore district, Sora sub-district; West Bengal state: West Medinipur district, Binpur and Kharagpur-I sub-districts. Population: 139,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Lodha, Lodi, Lohi, Lozi. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 59%–67% with Oriya [ory], 56%–72% with Bangla (Bengali [ben]), 20% with Santhali [sat] and Mundari [unr], 66%–85% between varieties of Lodhi, 57%–75% with Kharia Thar [ksy].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Lohar, Gade
[gda] Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh states. Population: 500,000 (2016). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bagri Lohar, Belani, Bhubaliya Lohar, Chitodi Lohar, Chittoriya Lohar, Dhunkuria, Domba, Dombiali, Gadia Lohar, Gaduliya Lohar, Gara, Kanwar Khati, Lohari, Lohpitta, Panchal Lohar, Rajput Lohar. Dialects: No significant dialect differences. May be same as Loarki [lrk] in Pakistan. A member of macrolanguage Rajasthani [raj].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Unclassified.
Lohar, Lahul
[lhl] Himachal Pradesh: Lahaul Spiti district in Lahul valley; Jammu and Kashmir state: Leh district, small border area. Population: 750 (1996). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Garas, Lohar. Dialects: None known. Different from Gade Lohar [gda].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified.
Lyngngam
[lyg] Assam state: Kamrup district; Meghalaya state. Population: 11,600 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 12,600. Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Khasi, Lyngam, Lyngym. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 36% with standard Khasi [kha].
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khasian.
Magahi
[mag] Bihar state: Bhagalpur, Gaya, eastern Patna districts; Jharkhand state: Hazaribagh district, north Chota Nagpur area; West Bengal state: Maldah district. Population: 20,700,000 in India (2011 census). 8,000,000 Khortha and 12,700,000 Magahi (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 20,746,400 (as L1: 20,735,600; as L2: 10,800). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Bihari, Magadhi, Magaya, Maghai, Maghaya, Maghori, Magi, Magodhi, Megahi. Autonym: मगही (magahī). Dialects: Southern Magahi, Northern Magahi, Central Magahi, Khortha (Khotta).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bihari.
Magar, Eastern
[mgp] Sikkim state: South district, scattered in East district. Population: 71,700 in India (2006 J. Leclerc). Ethnic population: 278,000 (2006 FTT). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Magari, Magarkura, Mangari, Manggar. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Kham-Magar, Magar.
Mahali
[mjx] Assam state: tea estates; Bihar state; Jharkhand state: Dhanbad, Gumla, Hazaribagh, Pargana, Ranchi, Santal Lohardaga, Saraikela Kharsawan, East Singhbhum, and West Singhbhum districts in Chota Nagpur area; Odisha state: Balasore, Keonjhar, and Mayurbhanj districts; West Bengal state: Jalpaiguri and West Medinipur districts. Population: 26,400 in India (2011 census), decreasing. Ethnic population: 278,000 (2007). Total users in all countries: 29,400. Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Mahili, Mahle, Mahli. Dialects: Possible dialect of Santhali [sat]. Lexical similarity: 69%–87% between varieties of Mahali, 68%–93% with Santhali [sat], 53%–59% with Mundari [unr].
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Santali.
Maithili
[mai] Bihar state: Muzaffarpur west, past Kosi east to west Purnia district, to Munger and Bhagalpur districts south, and Himalayan foothills north; Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai. Cultural, religious, and linguistic centers are Janakpur, Madhubani and Darbhanga. Many settled abroad. Population: 30,000,000 in India (2000 SIL). 12,000,000 monolinguals (1998). Total users in all countries: 34,085,000 (as L1: 33,890,000; as L2: 195,000). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory language of provincial identity in Bihar State (1992, Constitution, Amendment 71). Alternate Names: Apabhramsa, Bihari, Maitili, Maitli, Methli, Tirahutia, Tirhuti, Tirhutia. Autonym: मैथिली (Maithilī). Dialects: Standard Maithili, Southern Standard Maithili, Eastern Maithili (Khortha, Khotta, Kortha, Kortha Bihari), Western Maithili, Jolaha, Central Colloquial Maithili (Sotipura), Kisan, Dehati, Bajjika, Thetiya (Thati). Caste variation more than geographic variation in dialects. Functional intelligibility among all dialects, including those in Nepal. Reportedly most similar to Magahi [mag]. Lexical similarity: 91% between Brahmin and non-Brahmin dialects.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bihari.
Majhi
[mjz] Jharkhand state: Gumla district; Sikkim state: South district, Majhigaon near Jorethang, and East district, Majhitar near Rangpo; possibly Assam and West Bengal states. Population: 20,400 in India (2000). Ethnic population: 121,000 (2007). Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Manjhi. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bihari.
Majhwar
[mmj] Chhattisgarh state: Bilaspur district, Katghora sub-district; Raigarh and Surguja districts; Sikkim state; Uttar Pradesh state: scattered in Allahabad, Mirzapur, and Varanasi districts. Population: 34,300 (1995). Ethnic population: 174,000 (2007). Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Majhvar, Manjhi, Manjhia. Dialects: Possibly a dialect of Asuri [asr].
Classification: Unclassified.
Mal Paharia
[mkb] Bihar state: Banka district; Jharkhand state: Deoghar district; Dumka district, Pakaur; south Godda district; Sahibganj district, Borio, Depart village; south Santal Pargana district, Ramgarh hills; West Bengal state: Bankura, Barddhaman, and Murshidabad districts. Population: 51,000 (Bhaskararao 2006). Possibly 40,000 in West Bengal. Ethnic population: 111,000 (2000). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Dehri, Mad, Mader, Mal, Mal Pahariya, Maler, Malpaharia, Malti, Malto, Maltu, Manlati, Mar, Marpaharia, Maw, Mawdo, Mawer, Mawer Nondi, Paharia, Parsi. Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with Kumarbhag Paharia [kmj], Sauria Paharia [mjt], Bengali [ben], or Hindi [hin]. Part of the Malto ethnic group. Reportedly speak a variety similar to Kharia Thar [ksy] of Manbhum (Jharkhand). Lexical similarity: 85% between dialects, 59% with Mal Paharia Barmasiya.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Mala Malasar
[ima] Kerala state: Palakkad district, Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore district, Annamalai hills. Population: 1,000 (2004). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Maha Malasar, Malai Malasar, Malasir. Dialects: Lexical similarity: 68%–74% with Malasar [ymr], 70% with Eravallan [era], 70% with Muduga [udg], 65% with Tamil [tam], 61% with Malayalam [mal], 67%–72% with the Attapady dialect of Irula [iru], 75% with the Walayar dialect of Irula.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Unclassified.
Malankuravan
[mjo] Kerala state: Kollam, Kottayam, and Trivandrum districts, Chittar, Kattachira, and Rajanpara in Ranni Range, Pathanamthitta sub-district, Nottakal in Pathanapuram sub-district, Pampa river, Neduvanged sub-district forest tracks; Tamil Nadu state: Kanniyakumari district. Population: 18,600 (2001 census). 260 in Kerala, 18,300 in Tamil Nadu. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Mala Koravan, Malaikuravan, Malakkuravan, Male Kuravan. Dialects: Malayadiars.
Classification: Dravidian, Unclassified.
Malapandaram
[mjp] Kerala state: Kollam and Pathanamthitta districts, some in Kottayam and Palakkad districts; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore, Maduari, and Villupuram districts. Population: 5,850 (2001 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Hill Pantaram, Malapantaram, Malepantaram, Pandaram Basha. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 83%–94% between varieties in Kerala, 63%–68% with Malayalam [mal], 64%–68% with Tamil [tam].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Malayalam.
Malaryan
[mjq] Kerala state: scattered in Ernakulam, Idukki, Kottayam, and Thrissur districts. Population: No known L1 speakers. Dormant by 2000s. Ethnic population: 35,000 (2001 census). Status: 9 (Dormant). Alternate Names: Arayans, Karingal, Malai Arayan, Malayarayan, Malayarayar, Male Arayans, Maley Arayan, Vazhiyammar. Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Malayalam.
Malasar
[ymr] Karnataka state; Kerala state: Palakkad district, Chittoor and Palakkad sub-districts; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore district, Pollachi sub-district. Population: 7,760 (2001 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Malayar. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 68%–74% with Tamil [tam], 79%–83% with Walayar Irula [iru], 77%–86% with Eravallan [era], 57%–61% with Malayalam [mal], 68%–75% with Mala Malasar [ima] (2004 survey); 52%–56% with Malaryan [mjq], 77%–82% between Malasar and Kollimalakkar, Kollimalakkar 80% with Malapulaya (2006 survey).
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Unclassified.
Malavedan
[mjr] Kerala state: Ernakulam, Idukki, Kollam, Kottayam, Pathanamthitta, and Trivandrum districts; Tamil Nadu state: scattered in Dindigul, Kanniyakumari, Madurai, Nilgiris, Salem, and Tirunelveli districts. Population: Ethnic population: 12,600 (2001 census). Total population unknown. 6,190 in Kerala, 6,410 in Tamil Nadu (2001 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Malai Vedan, Malavetan, Towetan, Veda Bhasha, Vedans, Vettava Bhasha. Dialects: Vetan, Vettuvan. Lexical similarity: 64%–68% with Malayalam [mal], 48%–52% with Tamil [tam].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Malayalam.
Malayalam
[mal] Karnataka state: Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu, and Mysore districts; Kerala and Lakshadweep states; Puducherry state: Mahe; Tamil Nadu state: Colimbatore, The Nilgiris, and Tirunelveli districts. Population: 35,495,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 34,800,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 695,000 (2001 census). Total users in all countries: 37,829,870 (as L1: 37,134,870; as L2: 695,000). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Kerala State; union territories Lakshadweep and Puducherry (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Alealum, Malayalani, Malayali, Malean, Maliyad, Mallealle, Mopla. Autonym: മലയാളം (Malayāḷam). Dialects: Malabar, Nagari-Malayalam, Malayalam, South Kerala, Central Kerala, North Kerala, Kayavar, Namboodiri, Moplah (Mapilla), Pulaya, Nasrani, Nayar, Kasargod. Caste and communal dialects: Namboodiri, Nayar, Moplah, Pulaya, Nasrani. Mapilla is among the most divergent dialects, differing considerably from literary Malayalam.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Malayalam.
Maldivian
[div] Lakshadweep state: Laccadives, Minicoy island; Kerala state: possibly in Trivandrum. Population: 9,500 in India (2012). Status: 5* (Dispersed). Alternate Names: Dhivehi Bas, Mahl, Malikh, Malki. Dialects: Maliku Bas (Minicoy Dialect).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern, Sinhalese-Maldivian.
Malvi
[mup] Madhya Pradesh state: Bhopal, Dewas, Dhar, Guna, Indore, Mandsaur, Nimuch, Rajgarh, Rathlam, Sehore, Shajapur, and Ujjain districts; Rajasthan state: Jhalawar district. Sondwari dialect geographically isolated from the others. Population: 5,440,000 (2011 census). 1,110,000 monolinguals. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Malavi, Mallow, Malwada, Malwi. Autonym: मालवी (Malvi). Dialects: Ujjaini (Avanthika, Malvi Proper), Rajawadi, Umadwadi, Sondwari (Sondhwadi, Soudhwari). Considered the standard variety, Southeastern Rajasthani Nimadi [noe] is reportedly most similar language with 70% intelligibility. 88%–92% intelligibility of Ujjaini dialect by other dialects. Lexical similarity: 65%–89% among dialects. A member of macrolanguage Rajasthani [raj].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Unclassified.
Manda
[mha] Odisha state: Kalahandi district, Thuamul Rampur subdivision. Population: 4,040 (2000). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Konda-Kui, Manda-Kui, Manda-Pengo.
Mandeali
[mjl] Himachal Pradesh state: Mandi district. Population: 623,000 (2011 census). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Mandi, Mandiali, Mandyali, Pahari Mandiyali. Autonym: मंडियाली (Mandiali). Dialects: Preliminary survey suggests speakers have functional intelligibility of Kangri [xnr]. People in southeast Mandi district may have more difficulty understanding Kangri. Standard Mandeali is spoken throughout the broad valley running north and south from Jogindernagar to Sundarnagar. Mandeali Pahari is spoken north around Barot, east of Uhl River. Intelligible with difficulty to standard Mandeali. May be intermediate variety between Mandeali and Kullui [kfx]. Southeast district contains transition to Mahasui [bfz]. In the west, Sarkaghat is also a bit different from standard Mandeali, perhaps forming a transition towards Hamirpur and Bilaspur areas. Lexical similarity: 89% with Palampuri dialect of Kangri [xnr], 83% with Chambeali [cdh].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Manna-Dora
[mju] Andhra Pradesh state: Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam, and Vizianagaram districts, scattered in East Godavari and West Godavari districts; perhaps in Tamil Nadu state. Population: Ethnic population: 30,000. Status: 8b (Nearly extinct). Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Telugu.
Mannan
[mjv] Kerala state: Idukki district, Devikulam, Pirmed, and Udumpanchola sub-districts; Tamil Nadu state: scattered in Madurai district. Population: 7,850 (2001 census). 7,760 in Kerala, 82 in Tamil Nadu. Ethnic population: 12,000 (Shaw 2008). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Inavan petch, Mannan Pasha, Manne, Mannyod. Dialects: Little variation between varieties with 92% intelligibility, 70% intelligibility of Malayalam [mal]. Lexical similarity: 86%–96% between varieties, 57%–61% with Tamil [tam], 56%–64% with Malayalam [mal].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam.
Marathi
[mar] Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh states; Maharashtra state: Belgaum, Bidar, and Karnataka districts. Population: 95,200,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 83,000,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 12,200,000 (2001 census). Total users in all countries: 95,312,800 (as L1: 83,112,800; as L2: 12,200,000). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Maharashtra State (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Maharashtra, Maharathi, Malhatee, Marthi, Muruthu. Autonym: मराठी (Marāṭhī). Dialects: Gawdi of Goa, Kasargod, Kosti, Kudali, Nagpuri Marathi. 42 dialects. Complex dialect situation. Dialects bordering other major language areas share many features with those languages. Dialects or closely related languages: Konkani [knn], Goan Konkani [gom], Deccan [dcc], Varhadi-Nagpuri [vah], and Gowlan [goj]. There is a dialect in Thanjavur District and elsewhere in Tamil Nadu influenced lexically by Tamil [tam] and Kannada [kan], with at least 100,000 speakers.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern.
Maria
[mrr] Chhattisgarh state: Bastar district, Narayanpur and Bijapur sub-districts, administrative block of 200 villages known as ‘Abujhmar block’; Maharashtra state: Garhchiroli (Chanda) district, Bhamragad, Etapalli, and Sironcha sub-districts. Population: 165,000 (2000). 141,000 Maria and 23,700 Hill Maria; All Gondi speakers: 2,910,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Hill Maria, Madi, Madia, Madiya, Modh, Modi. Dialects: Abujmaria (Abujhmadia, Abujhmaria, Abujmar Maria, Abujmariya, Hill Maria), Adewada, Bhamani Maria (Bhamani), Etapally Maria. Etapally Maria dialect is apparently understood by all. Distinct from Muria, Dandami Maria [daq], Northern Gondi [gno], Adilabad Gondi [wsg], Aheri Gondi [esg], and Koya [kff]. 76%–77% intelligibility of other Gondi varieties. Muria Gondi [mut] is intelligible of Abujmaria around Narainpur area but not elsewhere. Distinct from Maria dialect of Chanda District in Maharashtra (Natarajan 1985). Intelligibility 90%–100% of Bhamragarh dialect by other Maria speakers. Maria is intelligible to the Gatte Maria, an ethnic group. Lexical similarity: 59%–80% among dialects (1991 survey), 65%–98% (1999 survey).
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Maria, Dandami
[daq] Andhra Pradesh state: Bijapur, Chhattisgarh, and Daksin Bastar Dantewada districts; Maharashtra state: Garhichiroli district; Telangana state: Khamman district. Population: 200,000 (2000). All Gondi speakers: 2,910,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bastar Koya, Bison Horn Maria, Dandami Madiya, Dhuru, Madiya, Maria Gond. Dialects: None known. Those in Geedam and Bailadila have 95%–98% mutual intelligibility, 81% of the Sukma variety, but 18%–21% of Maria [mrr], 18%–45% of Muria in Sukma understood the Geedam variety at 81% or lower; those in Bailadila understood Sukma at 92%. May be more than one language. Distinct from Northern Gondi [gno], Adilabad Gondi [wsg], Aheri Gondi [esg], Maria of Garhchiroli, and Koya [kff].
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Marma
[rmz] Mizoram and Tripura states. Population: 36,700 in India (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Mraima, “Mogh” (pej.). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Ngwi-Burmese, Burmish, Southern.
Marwari
[rwr] Rajasthan state: Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Jodhpur, and Pali districts; Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh states; thoughout India. Population: 7,830,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 7,856,410 (as L1: 7,855,400; as L2: 1,010). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Marrubhasha, Marvadi, Marvari, Marwadi, Rajasthani. Autonym: मारवाड़ी (Mārwāṛī). Dialects: Barmeri, Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Standard Marwari (Jodhpuri). The standard form of Marwari. May or may not be different from Marwari of Pakistan [mve]. 67% intelligibility of Shekhawati [swv], 61% of Godwari [gdx], 54% of Mewari [mtr], 54% of Dhundari [dhd], 45% of Haroti [hoj], and 45% of Mewati [wtm]. 53% intelligibility of Shekawati by Marwari. Lexical similarity: 50%–65% with Hindi [hin], 69%–76% with Merwari [wry], 72%–87% between dialects, 62%–74% with Godwari [gdx], 61%–77% with Shekawati [swv]. A member of macrolanguage Marwari [mwr].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Marwari.
Marwari
Mawchi
[mke] Gujarat state: southeast; Maharashtra state: Dhule district. Population: 98,500 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Mauchi, Mavchi, Mawachi, Mawchi Bhil, Mowchi. Dialects: Mawchi, Padvi.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Meitei
[mni] Assam state: Cachar and Dima Hasao; Mainly Manipur state; Nagaland state: Dimapur, Kohima, Peren, Phek; Mizoram state: Aizwal and Kolasibi; possibly some in nearby states. Population: 1,760,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 1,775,000. Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Manipur State (1992, Constitution, Amendment 71). Alternate Names: Kathe, Kathi, Manipuri, Meetei, Meeteilon, Meitei Manipuri, Meiteilon, Meiteiron, Meithe, Meithei, Menipuri, Mitei, Mithe, Ponna. Autonym: মৈতৈলোন্ (Meiteilon). Dialects: Meitei, Loi (Chakpa), Pang-gal (Manipuri Muslim, Pang-gan). Intelligibility of Meitei in Bangladesh is difficult. Those in Bangladesh may understand India Meitei better than vice versa possibly due to more language change in Bangladesh over the years. India Meitei is more standard. Intelligibility between dialects in Bangladesh definitely sufficient to understand complex and abstract discourse. Lexical similarity: 80%–86% between dialects in Bangladesh, 65%–70% between Bangladesh and India varieties.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Kuki-Chin-Naga.
Merwari
[wry] Rajasthan state: Ajmer and Nagaur districts. Population: 3,900,000 (2001 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Ajmeri. Dialects: None known. 82%–97% intelligibility of Marwari [mve]. Lexical similarity: 60%–73% between varieties of Merwari in Ajmer and Nagaur districts; 49%–74% with Marwari [rwr], 58%–80% with Shekhawati [swv], 44%–70% with Godwari [gdx], 54%–72% with Mewari [mtr], 62%–70% with Dhundari [dhd], 57%–67% with Haroti [hoj]. A member of macrolanguage Marwari [mwr].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Marwari.
Mewari
[mtr] Rajasthan state: Bhilwara, Chittoaurgarh, and Udaipur districts; Gujarat, Haryana, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh states. Population: 4,210,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Mewadi. Autonym: मेवाड़ी (Mewadi). Dialects: Khairari. 54% intelligibility with Marwari [rwr]. Lexical similarity: 81%–97% between dialects, 73%–91% with Marwari, 75%–90% with Wagri-Dhevdi, 72%–89% with Malvi [mup], 54%–72% with Merwari [wry], 57%–66% with Shekhawati [swv], 51%–73% with Godwari [gdx], 56%–64% with Dhundari [dhd], 69%–84% with Haroti [hoj]. A member of macrolanguage Marwari [mwr].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Marwari.
Mewati
[wtm] Haryana state: Faridabad and Gurgaon districts; Rajasthan state: Alwar, Bharatpur, and Dholpur districts; Uttar Pradesh: Madhura district. Population: 857,000 (2011 census). 51,600 monolinguals (2006 SIL). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Mewathi. Autonym: मेवाती (Mewati). Dialects: Ahirwati. 45% intelligibility of Marwari [rwr]. Over 90% intelligibility of Alwar District dialect throughout Mewati area. Dialect in the Nuh area of Gurgaon is considered purest. Lexical similarity: 72%–77% with Hindi [hin], 63%–68% with Haryanvi [bgc], 57%–70% with Shekhawati [swv], 62%–67% with Dhundari [dhd], 52%–70% with Haroti [hoj], 68%–71% with Braj Bhasha [bra], 86%–99% between all varieties of Mewati.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Unclassified.
Miji
[sjl] Arunachal Pradesh state: East Kameng district, Bameng and Lada sub-districts, Besai, Dongko, Drackchi, Gerangzing, Kampaa, Kojo, Nabolong, Naschgzang, Panker, Pego, Rojo, Sachung, Salang, Sekong, Wakke, and Zarkam villages; West Kemang district, Nafra sub-district, 25 villages including Chalang, Debbing, Dibrick, Dichik, Khellong, Lower Dzang, Nachinghom, Nafra, Najang, Naku, Nizong, Rurang, Upper Dzang, and Zangnaching in Bichom and Pakesa river valley. Population: 6,500 (2001). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Dammai, Dhammai, Namrei, Sajalong, Sajolang. Dialects: None known. Generally considered in the Mirish subgroup. Reportedly completely dissimilar to any surrounding language. Lexical similarity: 54%–65% between varieties of West and East Kameng; 54%–83% between all varieties.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Hrusish.
Miju-Mishmi
[mxj] Arunachal Pradesh state: Lohit district, 25 villages, high altitudes of east, upper Lohit and Dau valleys; Assam state. Population: 18,000 in India (2006 Arunachal Tourism). Total users in all countries: 18,200. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Eastern Mishmi, Geman Dend, Geman Deng, Kaman, Miji, Miju, Mishmi. Autonym: Kman. Dialects: None known. Conflicting reports about Miju-Mishmi similarity to Idu-Mishmi [clk] and Digaro-Mishmi [mhu]. Reportedly intelligible but recorded lexical similarity is too low for this to be possible. Ethnically related, but may not be linguistically similar. Related to Kachin, Chin and Lepcha [lep] languages (Chowdhury 1996). Some linguists believe the language is similar to Jingpho [kac]. Lexical similarity: 7% with Idu-Mishmi [clk], 10% with Digaro-Mishmi [mhu] (IICCC).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Mijish.
Mirgan
[zrg] Chhattisgarh state: Bastar district; Odisha state: Koraput and Nabarangapur districts. Population: 60,000 (1998 N. Lima). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Mirgami, Mirkan, Panika, Panka. Dialects: Batasuna, Jagdal Pur, Kosagumuda, Kotpad, Nabarang Pur, Umerkote. Dialects have good intelligibility. Not functionally intelligible of Halbi [hlb]. Lexical similarity: 83%–95% among dialects.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Mising
[mrg] Arunachal Pradesh state: Lower Subansiri district, Ziro subdistrict, villages near Pasighat, both sides of Kamla river; Upper Subansiri district, Daporizo sub-district; Assam state: Dhemaji, Dibrugarh, Golaghat, Jorhat, North Lakhimpur, Sibsagar, Sonitput, and Tinsukia districts. Population: 630,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Miching, Miri, Mishing, Missing, Takam. Autonym: Mising. Dialects: Idu-Mishmi [clk] may be a dialect.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Tani.
Mizo
[lus] Assam state; Manipur state: Churachandpur district; Mizoram and Nagaland states; Tripura state: Jampui Hill range. Population: 831,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 843,750. Status: 4 (Educational). Statutory language of provincial identity in Mizoram State (1950, Constitution, Articles 345–347 inclusive), unscheduled language. Alternate Names: Duhlian Twang, Dulien, Hualngo, Lukhai, Lusago, Lusai, Lusei, Lushai, Lushai-Mizo, Lushei, Sailau, Whelngo. Autonym: Mizo ṭawng. Dialects: Fannai, Mizo, Ngente, Tlau. Related to Hmar [hmr], Pangkhua [pkh], and Falam Chin [cfm] (Zahao dialect).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Central, Mizo.
Monpa, Kalaktang
[kkf] Arunachal Pradesh state: West Kameng district, Kalaktang sub-district, Balimu, Kalaktang, and Tomko villages. Population: 8,000 (2005). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Sharpa-lo, Southern Monpa, Tsangla Monpa. Dialects: Reportedly most similar to Dirang dialect of Tshangla [tsj], average 55% intelligibility of Dirang.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish.
Monpa, Tawang
[twm] Arunachal Pradesh state: Tawang district. Population: 8,600 in India. Total users in all countries: 9,900. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Brahmi, Cuona Menba, Dwags, Monkit, Northern Monpa, Takpa, Tawan Monba. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, East Bodish.
Mru
[mro] West Bengal state: Hoogly, Jalpaiguri, and Nadia districts. Population: Ethnic population: 2,100. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Mro, Mrung, Murung, Niopheng. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Ngwi-Burmese, Mru.
Muduga
[udg] Kerala state: Palakkad district, Mannarkad sub-district, Attapady block, Abbannuru, Chandakulam, Chitturu, Chundakki, Kakkuppady, Kallamale, Karuvare, Koravanpady, Kottamale, Kottiyuru, Molakambi, Mukkali, Ommale, Pettikkallu, Thazhachundakki, Thekkumpanna, Ummathupadiga, and Veeranuru; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore and Nilgiris. Population: 3,370 (1991 census). National census population figures combine Muduga of Attapady with Muthuvan, who, despite the similarity of the spelling of their ethnonym, are entirely different and separated by geographic and cultural distance (Menon 1996). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Mudugar. Dialects: Also influenced by Kannada [kan] and Tulu [tcy]. Has grammatical similarities with Tamil [tam], but cannot be treated as a dialect. It is distinct in the Dravidian family (Menon 1996:274 citing Rajendran). No dialects determined on survey. Lexical similarity: 55%–57% with Malayalam [mal], 59% with Muthuvan [muv], 60% with Tamil [tam], 75% with the Attapady dialect of Irula [iru], 82%–83% with Attapady Kurumba [pkr].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern.
Mugom
[muk] Himachal Pradesh state: Kinnaur, Dharmshala and Ladakh; Kullu, Manali. Population: 500 in India (2006 SIL). 75 families in India, 60 Mugom and 15 Karmarong. In addition, there are many seasonal workers. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang.
Mukha-Dora
[mmk] Andhra Pradesh state: Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam, and Vizianagaram districts; Adivasi Oriya, scattered. Population: 29,700 (1991 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Conta-Reddi, Mukha Dhora, Nooka Dora, Nuka-Dora, Reddi, Reddi-Dora, Riddi. Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Konda-Kui, Konda.
Munda
[unx] Odisha and Jharkhand states; possibly Bihar and West Bengal. Population: 486,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Heriki, Killi, hoɽo jagar, muɳɖa jagar. Autonym: মুন্ডা (Muɳɖa). Dialects: None known. Reportedly most similar to Mundari [unr].
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Mundari.
Mundari
[unr] Jharkhand state: Ranchi district, south and west; Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Tripura, and West Bengal states. Population: 1,160,000 in India (2011 census). 1,130,000 Mundari and 27,500 Bhumij (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 1,170,280. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Colh, Horo, Kolh, Mandari, Mondari, Munari. Autonym: Muṇḍari, मुण्डरि (Muṇḍari), মুণ্ডরি (Muṇḍari), ମୁଣ୍ଡରି (Muṇḍari). Dialects: Hasada’, Latar, Naguri, Kera’, Bhumij (Bhumij Munda, Bhumij Thar, Bhumji, Sadar Bhumij). 75% intelligibility of Ho [hoc]. Lexical similarity: 70%–84% with the Bhumij dialect.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Mundari.
Muria, Eastern
[emu] Chhattisgarh state: Bastar district, Keshkal and Kondagaon sub-districts; Odisha state: Nabarangapur district, Raigarh sub-district. Population: 200,000 (2007). All Gondi speakers: 2,910,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Dialects: Raigarh, Lanjoda. 95% intelligibility between dialects; 73%–83% of Western Muria [mut]; 19%–34% of Northern Gondi [gno]; 35% of Dandami Maria [daq]. Lexical similarity: 74%–77% with Western Muria [mut], 65%–75% with Far Western Muria [fmu].
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Muria, Far Western
[fmu] Chhattisgarh state: Rajnandgaon district, Mahola and Manpur sub-districts; Maharashtra state: Garhchiroli district, Armori, Dhanora, Korchi, and Kurkheda sub-districts; Gondia district, Jamdi sub-district. Population: 400,000 (2007). All Gondi speakers: 2,910,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Gondi, Koitor Boli, Koitori. Dialects: None known. 79%–88% intelligibility of other Muria languages; 74% of Dandami Maria [daq], 0% to 34% of Northern Gondi [gno], 6%–50% of Aheri Gondi [esg] and Adilabad Gondi [wsg], 2%–70% of Maria [mrr]. Lexical similarity: 72%–80% with Western Muria [mut]; 65%–75% with Eastern Muria [emu].
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Muria, Western
[mut] Chhattisgarh state: Bastar district, Narayanpur and Uttar Bastar Kanker districts; Maharashtra state: Gadchiroli. Population: 400,000 (2000 IICCC). All Gondi speakers: 2,910,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Jhoria, Mudia, Muria Gondi. Dialects: Sonapal, Banchapai, Dhanora. 80%–96% intelligibility among dialects, 69%–73% of Eastern Muria [emu], 51%–78% of Far Western Muria [fmu]. No intelligibility of Dandami Maria [daq], Northern Gondi [gno], Adilabad Gondi [wsg], Aheri Gondi [esg] or Maria [mrr]. Lexical similarity: 72%–80% with Far Western Muria [fmu]; 74%–77% with Eastern Muria [emu].
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Muthuvan
[muv] Andhra Pradesh state; Kerala state: Idukki district, Devikulam sub-district, Adimali and Devikulam blocks; Ernakulam, Kannur, Kottayam, Kozhikode, and Thrissur districts; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore district, Udumalpet and Valparai sub-districts, Anaimalai hills; Madurai district, Cardamom hills. Population: 16,800 (2006 IMB). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Mudavan, Muduva, Muduvan, Muduvar, Mutuvar, Paanti naattu peeccu. Dialects: Western Muthuvan (Malayalam Muthuvan, Nattu Muthuvan), Eastern Muthuvan (Pandi Muthuvan, Tamil Muthuvan). Intelligibility 82%–87% between dialects, eastern dialect more intelligible to western than vice versa, 80% intelligibility of Malayalam [mal]. Lexical similarity: 77%–88% between dialects, 62%–67% with Tamil [tam], 58%–68% with Malayalam [mal].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil.
Na
[nbt] Arunachal Pradesh state: Upper Subansiri district; Taksing sub-district, Dadu, Esnaya, Gumsing, Lingbing, Redi, Reding, Taying, Tongla, and Yeja villages. Population: 1500 Status: 6b* (Threatened). Dialects: None known. Affinity with Tagin [tgj] (Singh 1994b).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Tani.
Naga Pidgin
[nag] Nagaland state: Kohima district, Dimapur sub-district; Arunachal Pradesh state border area. Population: 30,000 (Holm 1989). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Alternate Names: Bodo, Kachari Bengali, Naga Creole Assamese, Naga-Assamese, Nagamese. Autonym: Nagamiz. Dialects: None known. A variety least similar to Assamese [asm] is spoken by the Yimchenger Naga, and varieties most similar to Assamese by the Angami Naga, and around Dimapur and Kohima.
Classification: Creole, Assamese based.
Naga, Angami
[njm] Nagaland state: Kohima district; Maharashtra and Manipur states. Population: 153,000 (2011 census). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Trade language used by about 30,000 Naga of other groups. Alternate Names: Angami, Angamis, Gnamei, Monr, Ngami, Tendydie, Tsanglo, Tsoghami, Tsugumi. Autonym: Tenyidie. Dialects: Dzuna, Kehena, Khonoma, Chakroma (Western Angami), Mima, Nali, Mozome, Tengima (Kohima). Tengima (Kohima) dialect is standard. Naga Chokri and Naga Khezha are eastern Angami groups with their own dialects. 2 southern varieties (Viswemal, Jakhama) are not intelligible with dialects listed. Tenyidie is an umbrella term for all the dialects spoken by the Angami people.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Angami-Pochuri.
Naga, Ao
[njo] Assam state; Nagaland state: central Mokokchung district. Population: 260,000 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Ao, Aorr, Cholimi, Hatigoria, Nowgong, Paimi, Uri. Autonym: Ao Naga. Dialects: Mongsen Khari, Changki, Chongli (Chungli), Dordar (Yacham), Longla. Chongli and Mongsen border on mutual unintelligibility (Burling 2003).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Naga.
Naga, Chang
[nbc] Assam state; Nagaland state: Tuensang district, 36 villages. Population: 66,900 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Chang, Changyanguh, Machongrr, Mochumi, Mochungrr, Mojung. Dialects: Reportedly similar to Wancho Naga [nnp]. Tuensang village dialect is central and intelligible to all.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Northern Naga.
Naga, Chokri
[nri] Nagaland state: Phek district, Cheswezumi is main village; Manipur state: some in Senapati district. Population: 111,000 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Chakhesang, Chakrima Naga, Chakru, Chokri, Eastern Angami. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Angami-Pochuri.
Naga, Chothe
[nct] Manipur state: Bishnupur district, Lamlang Hupi village; Chandel district, 15 villages; Nagaland state: near Myanmar border. Population: 3,600 (2001). Ethnic population: 3,600. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Chawte, Chote, Chothe, Chowte. Dialects: None known. Reportedly most similar to Tarao Naga [tro]. Reported intelligibility of Aimol [aim]. Lexical similarity: less than 60% with any neighboring languages.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Northwestern.
Naga, Inpui
[nkf] Assam state; Manipur state: Imphal, Senapati, and Tamenglong Imphal districts, 16 villages; Nagaland state: Dimapur, Mahei Namchi, New Zaluke, and Peren. Population: 54,200 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kabui, Kabui Naga, Kapwi, Koboi, Kubai. Autonym: Inpui. Dialects: None known. Considered by some to be the same language as Puimei Naga [npu]. Lexical similarity: 68% with Puimei Naga [npu].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified.
Naga, Kharam
[kfw] Manipur state: Senapati district, Kharam Pallen, Laikot, Phaijol, and Thuisenpai villages. Population: 1,400 (2000 SIL). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Duisalongmei, Thinglong. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 71%–73% with Purum [pub], 58%–60% with Kom [kmm], 64% with Koireng [nkd].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Northwestern.
Naga, Khezha
[nkh] Nagaland state: Khezhakhonoma, Kohima, and Phek districts. Population: 41,600 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Kezami, Khezha, Khezhama, Kozale, Kuzale, Közhale. Autonym: Kuzhale. Dialects: None known. An east Angami group with its own language.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Angami-Pochuri.
Naga, Khiamniungan
[kix] Nagaland state: east central Tuensang district. Population: 62,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 72,000. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Aoshedd, Kalyokengnyu, Khiamngan, Khiemnungan, Nokaw, Tukhemmi, Welam. Autonym: Khiamniungan. Dialects: Noklak. Dialects in Myanmar and India somewhat intelligible but have very limited contact. Lexical similarity: 67% with Gongwang dialect of Ponyo-Gongwang Naga [npg], 72%–73% with Ponyo dialect of [npg], 62%–67% with Lainong Naga [lzn], 41% with Lao Naga. Is in Konyak subgroup, but is divergent. They consider Ponyo Naga [npg] a part of Khiamniungan, though lexical similarity is only around 70%.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Northern Naga.
Naga, Khoibu
[nkb] Manipur state: Chandel district mountainous regions, Khoibu, Narum, Saibol, and Yangkhul villages; Laiching. Population: 25,600 (2001). Ethnic population: 25,600. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Khoibu, Khoibu Maring, Khoibu Maring Naga. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangkhulic.
Naga, Konyak
[nbe] Assam state: Sibsagar district, Bortol and Nagagaon villages near Simulguri township; Nagaland state: Mon and Tuensang districts. Population: 244,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 246,000. Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Kanyak. Autonym: Konyak. Dialects: Angphang, Hopao, Changnyu, Chen, Chingkao, Chinglang, Choha, Gelekidoria, Jakphang, Longching, Longkhai (Lungkhai, Lungkhi), Longmein, Longwa, Mon, Mulung, Ngangching, Sang, Shanlang, Shunyuo, Shengha, Sima, Sowa, Shamnyuyanga, Tableng (Angwangku, Kongon, Mohung, Wakching), Tabu, Tamkhungnyuo, Tang, Tobunyuo, Tolamleinyua, Totok. Tableng is standard dialect spoken in Wanching and Wakching. Reportedly similar to Phom Naga [nph].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Northern Naga.
Naga, Liangmai
[njn] Nagaland state: Kohima district, Jhaluke, Medzephima, and Paren sub-districts. Population: 49,800 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Kacha, Liangmai, Liangmei, Liyang, Lyangmay, Lyengmai, Zeliang. Autonym: Lianglad. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Naga.
Naga, Lotha
[njh] Nagaland state: west central, Wokha district. Population: 179,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Chizima, Choimi, Hlota, Lhota, Lotha, Lutha, Miklai, Tsindir, Tsontsii. Autonym: Kyong. Dialects: Live, Tsontsu, Ndreng, Kyong, Kyo, Kyon, Kyou.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Naga.
Naga, Makuri
[jmn] Nagaland state: Kiphire and Phek districts. Population: 4,000 in India (2007). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Makuri, Makury Naga. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified.
Naga, Mao
[nbi] Manipur state: Senapati district; Nagaland state. Population: 97,200 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Emela, Imemai, Maikel, Mao, Sopfomo, Sopvoma, Sopwama, Southern Angami. Autonym: Memi. Dialects: Paomata. Paomata dialect and Poumei Naga [pmx] may be the same (Breton 1997).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Angami-Pochuri.
Naga, Maram
[nma] Assam state; Manipur state: Imphal district; Senapati district, 26 villages near Maram, 5 villages near Senapati. Population: 32,500 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Autonym: Maram. Dialects: Willong Circle, Maram Khullen Circle, T. Khullen, Ngatan.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Naga.
Naga, Maring
[nng] Manipur state: Chandel district north border mountainous region, Tengnoupal sub-district; southeast, Laiching. Population: 25,800 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Maring. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangkhulic.
Naga, Monsang
[nmh] Manipur state: Chandel district, Chandel sub-district, Heibunglok, Japhou, Liwa Sarei, Liwchangning, and Monsang Pantha villages; Nagaland state: near Myanmar border. Population: 3,200 (2001). Ethnic population: 3,200. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Mawshang, Mongsang, Monshang, Moshang, Mushang. Autonym: Si:rti. Dialects: None known. Reportedly most similar to Moyon Naga [nmo] and Anal Naga [anm].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Northwestern.
Naga, Moyon
[nmo] Manipur state: Chandel district, 14 villages including Heigru Tampak, Khongjom, Komlathabi, Mitong, Moyon Khullen, Penaching; Nagaland state: near Myanmar border. Population: 3,700 (2001). Ethnic population: 3,700. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Mayol, Mayon Naga, Moyon. Autonym: Bujuurchong. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern.
Naga, Mzieme
Naga, Nocte
[njb] Arunachal Pradesh state: Changlang district; Tirap district, Laju, Khonsa, and Namsang sub-districts; Assam state: Lakhimpur district, Jaipur; Nagaland state: Mon district, Namsang. Population: 30,800 (2011 census). 19,800 monolinguals (2001 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Borduria, Jaipuria, Mohongia, Namsangia, Nocte, Nokte, Paniduria. Dialects: Khapa, Laju, Ponthai (Lamlak). Ponthai dialect is similar to both Tangsa [nst] and Nocte. Those living closer to the Nocte identify as Nocte; those living closer to the Tangsa identify as Tangsa. 50% intelligible with Wancho Naga [nnp].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Northern Naga.
Naga, Northern Rengma
[nnl] Nagaland state: Kohima district, north Rengma. Population: 13,000 (1997). 65,300 total Rengma (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Northern Rengma, Ntenyi, Ntenyi Naga, Nthenyi. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Angami-Pochuri.
Naga, Phom
[nph] Nagaland state: Tuensang district, Longleng sub-district, 36 villages. Population: 54,400 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Assiringia, Chingmengu, Phom, Phon, Tamlu, Tamlu Naga. Dialects: Yongyasha. Reportedly similar to Konyak Naga [nbe].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Northern Naga.
Naga, Pochuri
[npo] Manipur state: Ukrul district; Nagaland state: Phek district, Meluri sub-district, 27 villages. Population: 21,700 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Eastern Rengma, Meluri, Pochuri. Autonym: Pochury. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Angami-Pochuri.
Naga, Poumei
[pmx] Manipur state. Population: 51,000 (1997). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Paumei, Pomai, Pome, Poumei. Autonym: Poula. Dialects: Similar to Mao Naga [nbi]. Different from Puimei Naga [npu] (Breton 1997:217). Paomata dialect of Mao Naga and Poumei Naga may be the same (Breton 1997).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Angami-Pochuri.
Naga, Puimei
[npu] Assam and Manipur states. Population: 3,000 (2001). Mostly monolingual. Ethnic population: 3,000. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Puimei. Dialects: None known. Different from Poumei Naga [pmx] (Breton 1997:217). Not functionally intelligible of any related language (Khasung). Lexical similarity: 68% with Inpui Naga [nkf].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified.
Naga, Rongmei
[nbu] Assam state: Cachar district. 35 villages; Manipur and Nagaland states. Population: 66,700 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Kabui, Maruongmai, Nruanghmei, Rongmai, Zeliang. Autonym: Rongmei. Dialects: Songbu.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Naga.
Naga, Sangtam
[nsa] Nagaland state: Tuensang district, Kiphire sub-district, Chare circle. Population: 76,000 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Isachanure, Lophomi, Sangtam. Dialects: Kizare, Pirr (Northern Sangtam), Phelongre, Thukumi (Central Sangtam), Photsimi, Purr (Southern Sangtam). Standard based on Tsadanger village dialect. Kizare north of Meluri, and not known how much it differs from other Sangtam.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Naga.
Naga, Southern Rengma
[nre] Assam state: Karbi-Anglong district, 15 villages; Manipur state; Nagaland state: Kohima district, Tseminyu sub-district. Population: 21,000 (1997). 65,300 total Rengma (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Injang, Moiyui, Mon, Mozhumi, Nzong, Nzonyu, Rengma, Rengma Naga, Southern Rengma, Unza, Western Rengma. Dialects: Keteneneyu, Azonyu (Nzonyu, Southern Rengma). Tseminyu principal dialect main center. Southern Rengma and Northern Rengma [nnl] are reportedly inherently unintelligible.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Angami-Pochuri.
Naga, Sumi
[nsm] Assam state: Tinsukia district, 7 villages. Nagaland state: Kohima, Mokokchung, Tuensang, and Zunheboto districts. Dayang is near Dayang river. Population: 10,800 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Sema, Simi, Sumi. Autonym: Sümi. Dialects: Dayang (Western Sumi), Lazemi, Zhimomi, Zumomi.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Angami-Pochuri.
Naga, Tangkhul
[nmf] Manipur state: Ukhrul district, 168 villages; Nagaland and Tripura states. Population: 187,000 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Champhung, Luppa, Tagkhul, Thangkhulm. Autonym: Tangkhul. Dialects: Ukhrul, Khunggoi, Khangoi, Kupome (Luhupa), Phadang. Ukhrul is principal dialect.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tangkhulic.
Naga, Tangsa
[nst] Arunachal Pradesh state: Changlang district, Manmau, Jayrampur, Nampong, and Kharsang circles; Assam state: border area with Changlang district, 25 villages. Population: 38,600 in India (2011 census). Includes 10,200 Tutsa (2011 census). 400 monolinguals. Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Cham Chang, Rangpan, Tangsa, Tangshang, Tase, Tase Naga, Tasey. Dialects: Lungri, Sangche, Sangwal, Taipi, Tikhak, Tonglim (Tangrim), Tutsa (Tutcha), Yogli (Jugli), Yongkuk (Yukok), Have (Havoy), Higsho, Higtsii, Kimsing (Chamchang, Khemsing, Sanke, Sechu, Shangge, Shechu), Longphi (Longkhi), Lungchang, Miti, Moklum, Mosang (Hewa), Mungray (Morang), Ngemu, Phong (Ponthai), Rongrang, Ronrang (Poerah), Hasik (Awla, Awlay, Laju, Lazu Naga, Ollo Naga). Phong (Ponthai) dialect is similar to both Nocte [njb] and Tangsa. Those living closer to the Nocte identify as Nocte; those living closer to the Tangsa identify as Tangsa.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Northern Naga.
Naga, Tarao
[tro] Manipur state: Chandel district, Palel sub-district, Heikakpokpi, Khuringmul Laiminei, and Leishokching villages; Ukhrul district, Sinakeithei village. Population: 870 (2000). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Tarao, Taraotrong, Tarau. Dialects: None known. Reportedly most similar to Chothe Naga [nct], 70% intelligibility. Lexical similarity: less than 60% with any neighboring language; 43%–46% with Chothe Naga [nct].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Northwestern.
Naga, Thangal
[nki] Manipur state: Senapati district, East and West Sadar hills sub-districts, Gailongde, Makeng Thangal, Mapao Thangal, Mayangkhang, Ningthoubam, Thangal Surung, Tikhulen, Tumnoupokpi, and Yaikangpou. Most are east of Barak valley. Population: 23,600 (2001). Ethnic population: 23,600. Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Khoirao, Khoirao Naga, Koirao, Kolya, Mayangkhang, Miyang-Khang, Ngari, Thangal, Thanggal, Tukaimi. Autonym: Thangkhal Haam. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Maram Naga [nma].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Naga.
Naga, Tutsa
[tvt] Arunachal Pradesh state: south Changlang and east Tirap districts; Assam state: Tinsukia district. Population: 25,000 (2001). 12,500 monolinguals. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Totcha, Tutsa. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Nocte Naga [njb] and Tase Naga [nst].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Northern Naga.
Naga, Wancho
[nnp] Arunachal Pradesh state: southwest Tirap district, 36 villages; Assam and Nagaland states. Population: 59,200 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Banpara Naga, Joboka, Jokoba, Naga Wancho, Wancho. Dialects: Changnoi, Bor Muthun (Bor Mutonia), Horu Muthun, Kulung Muthun (Mithan). Significant variation between spoken language in upper and lower regions. Reportedly similar to Chang Naga [nbc] and Konyak Naga [nbe].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Northern Naga.
Naga, Yimchungru
[yim] Nagaland state: Tuensang district, between Namchik and Patkoi. Population: 83,300 (2011 census). Includes 12,300 Chirr and 11,100 Tikhir (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Tozhuma, Yachumi, Yanchunger, Yimchunger, Yimchungre. Autonym: Yimchungrü. Dialects: Tikhir, Wai, Chirr, Minir, Pherrongre, Yimchungru. The last 3 dialects listed are in the south.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Naga.
Naga, Zeme
[nzm] Assam state: North Cachar district, upper Barak valley; Manipur state: Tamenglong district; Nagaland state: Kohima district, Jhaluke, Medzephima, and Paren sub-districts. Population: 114,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Arung, Empeo, Empui, Jeme, Kacha, Kachcha, Kachcha Naga, Kutcha, Mezama, Sangrima, Sengima, Zeliang, Zeliangrong, Zemi. Autonym: Zeme. Dialects: Paren, Njauna.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Naga.
Nagarchal
[nbg] Madhya Pradesh state: Balaghat, Chhindwara, Mandla, and Seoni districts. Population: No known L1 speakers. The last speaker either died or shifted to Hindi [hin] or Northern Gondi [gno] by 1981 (Ishtiaq 1999). Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Nagar, Nagarchi. Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Nahali
[nlx] Madhya Pradesh state: Barwani district; Maharashtra state: Dhule district; Jalgaon district, Chopda sub-district, north of Amalwadi; Nandurbar district, Dhadgaon sub-district, 12 villages near Toranmal. Population: 15,000 (2003). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Kalto, Nahal, Nahale, Nahalia. Dialects: None known. 96% intelligibility of Bareli Pauri [bfb]. This may be acquired rather than inherent (1988 S. Watters). Lexical similarity: 58%–68% with Noiri [noi] varieties, 60%–61% with Dungra Bhil [duh], 69%–73% with Bareli Pauri [bfb].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Nahari
[nhh] Chhattisgarh state: Raipur, Bilaspur districts; Odisha state: Sambalpur district. Population: 20,400 (2000). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Nahali. Dialects: None known. A more divergent variety, related to Halbi [hlb].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Nefamese
[nef] Arunachal Pradesh state. Population: Population unknown. May be replaced by Hindi [hin] (2006 Y. Modi). Status: 8b (Nearly extinct). Alternate Names: Arunamese. Classification: Pidgin, Assamese based.
Nepali
[npi] Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand states; West Bengal state: Darjeeling area. Population: 2,930,000 in India (2011 census). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Sikkim, West Bengal state (1992, Constitution, Amendment 71). Alternate Names: Eastern Pahari, Gorkhali, Gurkhali, Khaskura, Nepalese, Parbatiya. Dialects: Gorkhali, Palpa, Nepali.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Eastern, Eastern Pahari.
Newar
[new] Bihar state: some in Bettiah; Sikkim and West Bengal states. Population: 14,000 in India (2007). Ethnic population: 166,000 (2007). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Newa Bhaye, Newaah Bhaae, “Newari” (pej.). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Newar.
Nicobarese, Car
[caq] Andaman and Nicobar Islands state: North Nicobar Islands, Car island. Population: 37,000 (2005). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Lingua franca for Nicobar Islands. Alternate Names: Car, Pu. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Nicobar, Car.
Nicobarese, Central
[ncb] Andaman and Nicobar Islands state: Camorta, Katchal, Nancowry, Nicobar Islands, Trinket islands. Population: 10,100 (2001 census). 5,310 on Katchal, 3,410 on Kamorta, 930 on Nancowry, 430 on Trinket. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Muöt, Nicobar. Dialects: Camorta (Kamorta), Katchal (Kachel, Tehnu), Nancowry (Nancoury), Trinkut (Trinkat). Central Nicobar once regarded as one language but no longer generally accepted. Dialects now regarded as mutually unintelligible with the exception of Trinket and Katchal. (Parkin 1991).
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Nicobar, Nancowry.
Nicobarese, Southern
[nik] Andaman and Nicobar Islands state: Little Nicobar and outer Great Nicobar islands. Population: 7,500 (2001 census). 350 on Little Nicobar Island, 7,570 total on Great Nicobar, about 400 of these are Shom Peng [sii]. Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Nicobara. Dialects: Condul (Kondul), Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, Milo.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Nicobar, Great Nicobar.
Nihali
[nll] Madhya Pradesh state: Burhanpur; Maharashtra state: Buldana district, Jamod Jalgaon sub-district. Population: 2,000 (Parkin 1991). Ethnic population: 5,000 (1987). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Nihal. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 25% between Nihal in Chikaldara taluk and Akola District and Korku [kfq] (Munda).
Classification: Language isolate.
Nimadi
[noe] Madhya Pradesh state: Barwani, south Dhar, Khandwa, and Khargone districts; Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh states. Population: 2,310,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Nemadi, Nimari, Nimiadi. Dialects: Bhuani. Dialects have 90%–100% mutual inherent intelligibility. Lexical similarity: 74%–94% among dialects, 64%–75% with Malvi [mup], 62%–77% with Hindi [hin], 56%–64% with Gujarati [guj], 49%–58% with Marathi [mar].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Unclassified.
Noiri
[noi] Madhya Pradesh state: Badwani district, Pansemal sub-district; Maharashtra state: Dhule district, Shirpur sub-district; Jalgaon district, Chopda sub-district; Nandurbar district, Akkalkua, Dhadgaon, and Shahada sub-districts. Population: 100,000 (2003 IICCC). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Mathwadi Bhilori. Dialects: Barutiya. Barutiya people have high acquired intelligibility of Vasavi [vas] and Bareli Pauri [bfb] and Dungra Bhili [duh]. Lexical similarity: 77%–87% with Dungra Bhili [duh], 60%–71% with different Vasavi [vas] varieties, 58%–68% with Nahali [nlx] of Toranmal, 47%–54% with the Kotali dialect of Bhili [bhb]; the Barutiya dialect of Noiri, 64%–70% with Bareli Pauri [bfb]. Noiri-Barutiya variety falls between Vasavi and Bareli Pauri on a dialect continuum.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Nora
[nrr] Arunachal Pradesh state: northeast, near Tibet. Population: No known L1 speakers. Had 300 speakers at beginning of 20th century, but extinct by end of century. Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Norra, Noza, Nurra, Tai Nora. Classification: Tai-Kadai.
Nyishi
[njz] Arunachal Pradesh state: lower Subansiri district. Population: 299,000 (2011 census). 23,000 speakers of Bangni dialect (Van Driem 2007). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bangni, Dafla, Daphla, Lel, Nishi, Nisi, Nissi, Nyising. Autonym: Nil. Dialects: Aka Lel, Bangni, Nishang. Reportedly similar to Tagin [tgj]. Apatani [apt] may be a dialect.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Tani.
Oadki
[odk] Scattered, in Gujarat, Haryana, New Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan and other states. Population: 2,000,000 in India (2017 A. Ranjha). Total users in all countries: 2,067,700. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Oad, Od, Odh, Odki. Dialects: None known. Resembles Marathi [mar] with Gujarati [guj] features and borrowings from Marwari [mve] and Punjabi.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified.
Odia
[ory] Andhra Pradesh state: Vishakhapatnam district; Chhattisgarh state: Bastar, Raigarh, and Raipur districts; Jharkhand state: Ranchi and Singhbhum districts; West Bengal state: Medinipur (Midnapore) district; Assam and Odisha states. Population: 37,890,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 34,300,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 3,590,000 (2001 census). Total users in all countries: 38,051,547 (as L1: 34,461,520; as L2: 3,590,027). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Odisha State (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Odisha, Odri, Odrum, Oliya, Oriya, Uriya, Utkali, Vadiya, Yudhia. Autonym: ଓଡ଼ିଆ (Oḍiā). Dialects: Mughalbandi (Odia Proper, Standard Odia), Southern Odia, Northwestern Odia, North Balasore Odia, Midnapore Odia, Halbi. Lexical similarity: 75%–76% with Sambalpuri [spv], 68% with Kamar [keq]. A member of macrolanguage Oriya [ori].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Oriya.
Oko-Juwoi
[okj] Andaman and Nicobar Islands, west central and southwest interior Middle Andaman island. Population: No known L1 speakers. The last speaker died in 1931 (Van Driem 2001). Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Junoi, Juwai, Juwoi, Oku-Juwoi. Classification: Andamanese, Great Andamanese, Central.
Öñge
[oon] Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Little Andaman island, Dugong Creek and South Bay. Population: 94 (Abbi 2006). Mainly monolingual. Ethnic population: 110 (1999). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Ong. Dialects: None known. Reportedly distinct from Sentinel [std].
Classification: Andamanese, South Andamanese.
Oriya
Oriya, Adivasi
[ort] Andhra Pradesh state: Vishakhapatnam district, Araku valley; Odisha state. Population: 400,000, all users. L1 users: 200,000 (2011 SIL). L2 users: 200,000 (1998 U. Gustafsson). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Adivasi, Adiwasi Oriya, Desiya, Kotia, Kotia Oriya, Kotiya, Tribal Oriya. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 38%–42% with standard Odia [ory], 80%–85% with Desiya [dso] in Odisha.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Oriya.
Pahari, Kullu
[kfx] Himachal Pradesh state: Kullu district, Balichowk, Banjar, and Sainj sub-districts. Population: 195,000 (2011 census). All Pahari 2,170,000 (1997). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kauli, Kullui, Kulu Boli, Kulu Pahari, Kului, Kulvi, Kulwali, Pahari, Pahari Kullu, Phari Kulu. Dialects: Inner Siragi (Inner Seraji, Saraji, Siragi, Siraji), Kullui, Outer Seraji. Inner Siragi is apparently different from the Siraji-Kashmiri dialect of Kashmiri [kas]. Lexical similarity: 85% or higher among dialects.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Pahari, Mahasu
[bfz] Himachal Pradesh state: Shimla and Solan districts; Uttarakhand state: Uttarkashi district. Population: 1,000,000 (2002). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Mahasui. Dialects: Lower Mahasu Pahari (Baghati, Baghliani, Kiunthali), Upper Mahasu Pahari (Rampuri, Rohruri, Shimla Siraji, Sodochi). The Kiunthali variety appears to be understood by others, and their attitude toward it is favorable. Rampuri is also called Kochi; Rohruri is also called Soracholi. Intelligibility among dialects above 85%. Lexical similarity: 74%–82% with upper dialects, 74%–95% with lower dialects.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Pahari-Potwari
[phr] Jammu and Kashmir state: Kupware district, near Pakistan border. Population: 1,020,000 in India (2000). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Mirpur, Mirpur Panjabi, Mirpur Punjabi, Mirpuri. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Panjabi, Western Panjabi.
Pali
[pli] Scattered. Population: No known L1 speakers in India. Ethnic population: No ethnic community. Total users in all countries: none known. Status: 9 (Second language only). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified.
Paliyan
[pcf] Karnataka state; Kerala state: Idukki district, Pirmed sub-district, Chakkupallam, Kumily, and Vandanmedu areas; Ernakulam and Kottayam districts; Tamil Nadu state: Coimbatore, Dindigul, Madurai, Pudukkottai, Ramanathapuram, Thanjavur, and Tirunelveli districts. Population: 9,520 (2001 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Makkal, Malai Paliyar, Palani, Palaya, Palayan, Paliyar, Palleyan, Palliyar, Poliyar, Seramar, Tamil. Dialects: Mala Pulayan (Hill Pulaya, Karavazhi). Lexical similarity: 71%–75% with Tamil [tam], 62%–65% with Malayalam [mal], 79%–85% with Mala Pulayan [pcf].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Malayalam.
Panchpargania
[tdb] Assam state: upper tea gardens; Jharkhand state: Ranchi and Singhbhum districts; Odisha and West Bengal states. Population: 257,000 (2011 census). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Alternate Names: Bedia, Bediya, Chik Baraik, Chik Barik, Pan, Pan Sawasi, Tair, Tamara, Tamaria, Tanti, Temoral, Tumariya. Dialects: Sonahatu variety considered most pure. Lexical similarity: 77%–94% between dialects, 61%–86% with Kudmali, 68%–76% with Magahi (Khortha) [mag], 61%–70% with Sadri [sck], 48%–52% with Odia [ory], 45%–58% with Bengali [ben], 50%–60% with Hindi [hin].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bihari.
Pangwali
[pgg] Himachal Pradesh state: Chamba district, Pangi sub-district; Lahaul Spiti district, Udaipur on Chenab river to Chamba border at Purthi, possibly from Tandi to Sach Pass; Jammu and Kashmir state: Doda district. Population: 18,700 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Pahari, Pangi, Pangwali Pahari. Dialects: 64% inherent intelligibility of Mandeali [mjl], 52% of Kangri [xnr], 44% of Chambeali [cdh], 50% of Bhadrawahi [bhd]; some dialect variation throughout the valley in Chamba District; Purthi reportedly most divergent. Lexical similarity: 55% with Hindi [hin], 77% with Kullu Pahari [kfx]; 45% with Bhadrawahi [bhd].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Paniya
[pcg] Karnataka state: Kodagu district; Kerala state: Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, and Wayanad districts; Tamil Nadu state: west of Nilgiris hills. Population: 22,800 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Nil, Pania, Paniyan, Panyah. Autonym: பணிய (Paniya), പാണിയ (Paniya). Dialects: Intelligibility of Malappura Paniya by Kodava [kfa] is 66%. Lexical similarity: 79%–88% between dialects and Malappuram Paniya, 71% with Kodaku [ksz] and Kodava [kfa].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Malayalam.
Pankhu
[pkh] Mizoram state: Chhimtuipui and Lunglei districts, 12 villages. Population: Current population unknown. Ethnic population: 230 (1971). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Paang, Pang, Pang Khua, Pangkhu, Pankho, Pankhua, Panko, Pankua. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Central.
Pardhan
[pch] Andhra Pradesh state; Chhattisgarh state: Bilaspur, Raipur, and Surguja districts; Madhya Pradesh state: Balaghat, Betul, Chhindwara, Hoshangabad, Jabalpur, Mandla, and Seoni districts; Maharashtra state: Bhandara, Garhchiroli, Nagpur, Wardha, and Yavatmal districts; Telangana state: possibly in Adilbad district. Population: 135,000 (2007). All Gondi speakers: 2,910,000 (2011 census). Ethnic population: 347,000. Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Pradhan, Pradhani. Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Gondi.
Pardhi
[pcl] Karnataka state: Belgaum and Bijapur districts, small border areas; Maharashtra state: Kolhapur, Sangli, Satara, and Solapur districts; Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh states: widely scattered. Population: 69,100 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bahelia, Chita Pardhi, Lango Pardhi, Paidia, Paradhi, Paradi, Paria, Phans Pardhi, Takankar, Takia. Dialects: Neelishikari, Pittala Bhasha, Takari, Haran Shikari. Probably more than 1 language (Lango). Possibly a dialect of Bhili [bhb].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Parenga
[pcj] Odisha state: Mayurbhanj district. Population: 20 (2011 UNESCO). Ethnic population: 12,600 (2001 census). In Odisha. Status: 8b (Nearly extinct). Alternate Names: Gadaba, Gorum, Gorum Sama, Pareng, Parenga Parja, Parengi, Parenji, Poroja. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, South Munda, Koraput Munda, Sora-Juray-Gorum, Gorum.
Parsi
[prp] Gujarat and Maharashtra states. Population: 11,700 in India (2001 census). Listed as Persian in the 2001 census. Total users in all countries: 111,700. Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Parsee. Dialects: None known. Reportedly not inherently intelligible with Parsi-Dari [prd], from whom they separated 600–700 years ago. Other reports say they came to India 1,300 years ago. Related to Zoroastrian Dari [gbz] in Iran.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Western, Northwestern, Central Iran.
Pashto, Northern
[pbu] Punjab state: Pathankot; Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir states: where the 3 states meet in southwest Kashmir valley; Kupwara district, Changnar and Dhakki villages; Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra states; New Delhi; Uttar Pradesh: Rampur district. Population: 21,700 in India (2011 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Eastern, Southeastern, Pashto.
Pathiya
[pty] Kerala state: Wayanad district, Cheramkolli, Kazhambu, Mathamangalam, Thekkumpatta, and Thelampatta villages. Population: 1,000 (2004 SIL). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Dialects: None known. It has been reported that they speak Malayalam [mal] mixed with Kannada [kan] words (Menon 1996:313; Shashi and Shri 1994, Vol. 11). Lexical similarity: 88% with Kalanadi [wkl], 83% with Kunduvadi [wku], 72% with Malayalam [mal], 79% with Paniya [pcg], 76%–80% with Mullu Kurumba [kpb], 70%–74% with Wayanad Kurichiya.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern.
Pattani
[lae] Himachal Pradesh state: Chamba-Lahul, Lahul, Pattan, and lower Mayar valleys, some in Kullu and Manali cities; Jammu and Kashmir state: Kishtwar district. Population: 21,500, all users. L1 users: 16,500 (2011 census). L2 users: 5,000 (1997). Ethnic population: 20,000 (2002). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Chamba, Chamba Lahuli, Changsapa Boli, Lahuli, Manchad, Manchati, Patni, Swangla. Dialects: Chamba-Lahuli (Western Pattani), Eastern Pattani, Central Pattani. 3 caste dialects exist (Pandit-Rajput, Harijan and Lohar). The lower castes understand Pandit-Rajput, but not vice versa. Lexical similarity: 55%–63% between Western Pattani dialect and Tinani [lbf], 26%–39% with Bunan [bfu], 37% with Shumcho [scu], 35% with Jangshung [jna], 33% with Sunam [ssk], 31% with Chitkuli [cik] and Kinnauri [kfk], 25% with Puh and Kinnaur District varieties (Kinnaur Bhoti [nes]) of Tibetan, 22% with Nesang [tpq], 18% with Tibetan [bod], 14%–15% with the Spiti and Stod varieties of Tibetan. Average of 80% between dialects.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Pattapu
Pengo
[peg] Odisha state: Kalahandi district; Koraput district, Dasamantapur and Nandapur sub-districts; Nabarangapur district, Pappadahandi sub-district; Rayagada district, Kashipur sub-district. Population: Ethnic population: 350,000 (2000). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Hengo, Pengu. Dialects: Indi, Awe.
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Gondi-Kui, Konda-Kui, Manda-Kui, Manda-Pengo.
Phake
[phk] Arunachal Pradesh state; Assam state: Dibrugarh district, Bor-phake, Man-long, Man-po-mung, Mung-lang, Nam-phake, Ning-gam, Nong-lai, Pha-neng, and Tipam-phake villages along Dihing river. Population: 2,000 (Bradley 2007a). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Faake, Phakey, Phakial. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Aiton [aio]. Similar to Shan [shn] of Myanmar.
Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Tai, Southwestern.
Phudagi
Pnar
[pbv] Assam state: North Cachar hills, Borolokha, Dibruchera and Jatinga; Karbi Anglong district, Ulukunchi; Meghalaya state: Khasi and Jaintia hills north of War Jaintia; Mizoram state: north Aizawl district. Population: 319,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 323,000. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Dialects: Jaintia (Synteng), Nongtung. Formerly considered a dialect of Khasi [kha]. Jaintia dialect has 12 spoken forms: Jowai, Shangpung, Batau, Raliang, Sutnga, Sumer, Nartiang, Barato, Rymbai, Lakadong, Mynso, and Nongtalang. All are intelligible, except for Nongtalang, which is akin to Khmer [khm]. Jowai is standard spoken form. Lexical similarity: 68% with standard Khasi.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khasian.
Portuguese
[por] Goa state, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Population: 250,000 in India. Status: 5* (Dispersed). Alternate Names: Português, Purtagaalee. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Portuguese-Galician.
Powari
[pwr] Madhya Pradesh state: Balaghat, Betul, Chindwara, and Seoni districts; Maharashtra state: Bhandara, Gondia, and Wardha districts. Population: 326,000 (2011 census). Ethnic population: 2,000,000 (1986 All India Powar Council). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Pwari. Dialects: Bhoyar Powari (Bhomiyari, Bhoyari, Bhoyaroo, Bhuiyar, Bhuria, Bohoyeri), Vyneganga Powari, Govari of Seoni, Khalari, Koshti, Kumbhari, Marari. Reported intelligibility between Bhoyar and Vyneganga. Balaghat District dialect considered central among Bhoyar and Vyneganga varieties. Lexical similarity: 60%–87% among dialects; 80%–83% with Koshti, Kumbhari, and Khalari sub-groups; 49%–65% with Bagheli [bfy], 46%–64% with Bundeli [bns].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western.
Punjabi, Eastern
[pan] Chandigarh state; Haryana state: Ambala and Pauchkula districts; Himachal Pradesh state: Kangra and Una districts; Jammu and Kashmir state: Jambu, Kathua, and Samba Jambu districts; Punjab state: Amritsar and Gurdaspur districts; Rajasthan state: north Ganganagar district. Population: 31,100,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 32,601,140 (as L1: 32,600,670; as L2: 470). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Punjab, West Bengal states; union territories Delhi, Chandigarh (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Eastern Panjabi, Gurmukhi, Gurumukhi, Punjabi. Autonym: ਪੰਜਾਬੀ (Panjabi), ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ (Panjabi bhasa). Dialects: Punjabi Proper (Panjabi Proper), Majhi, Doabi, Bhatyiana (Bhatiani, Bhatneri, Bhatti), Powadhi (Puadhi, Puadi), Malwai (Malwa), Bathi. Western Punjabi [pnb] is distinct from Eastern Punjabi, although there is a chain of dialects to Western Hindi (Urdu) [urd]. Bhatyiana dialect considered a mixture of Punjabi and Marwari [mve]. Majhi considered the purest Punjabi form (Grierson and Konow 1903–1928).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Panjabi.
Punjabi, Western
[pnb] Jammu and Kashmir state: Kathua, Jammu, and Samba districts; Punjab state: Gurdaspur district; possibly Delhi, Haryana. Population: 1,910,000 in India (2007). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Lahanda, Lahnda, Lahndi, Western Panjabi, “Hindki” (pej.). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Panjabi, Western Panjabi.
Purik
[prx] Jammu and Kashmir state: Kargil district, mainly Suru valley; Dras valley, some in western Himalayas. Population: 93,500 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Burig, Burigskat, Purig, Purig-pa, Purigskad, Purik Bhotia, Purkhi, Purki. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Balti [bft].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Western.
Puroik
[suv] Arunachal Pradesh state: East Kameng, Kurung Kumey, Papumpare, and Lower Subansiri districts, along Par river, 53 villages. Population: 20,000 (2011 SIL). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Dialects: None known. A divergent language which may not be Sino-Tibetan but possibly Austro-Asiatic. Intelligible of Bugun [bgg] (Chowdhury 1996). Burling (2003) groups it with Sherdukpen [sdp] and Bugun; possibly also with Lish [lsh] and Sartang [onp]. Lexical similarity: 54%–67% between varieties; 57%–68% with Chug [cvg]; less than 15% with Bugun [bgg] and Nyishi [njz].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Kho-Bwa.
Purum
[pub] Manipur state: Chandel district, Chandanpokpi, Khongkhang Chothe, Lamlang Huipi, Loirang Talsi, New Wangparan, Salemthar, and Zat’lang; Senapati district, Moibunglikli, Purumkhulen, Purumkhunou, Purumlikli, and Waicheiphai villages. Population: 500 (2001 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Puram, Purum Naga. Dialects: None known. 95% intelligibility of Kharam Naga [kfw]. Lexical similarity: 60%–65% with Kom [kmm], 60%–66% with Koireng [nkd], 57%–60% with Aimol [aim], 71%–73% with Kharam Naga [kfw].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern.
Rabha
[rah] Assam state: Darrang, Goalpara, and Kamrup districts; Nagaland state; West Bengal state: Alipurduar and Jalpaiguri districts; Koch Bihar district, Tafangunj sub-district; Meghalaya state: East and West Garo hills districts. Population: 140,000 (2011 census). No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 374,000 (1993). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Rava, Rába Katha. Autonym: রাভা (Rābhā). Dialects: Maitaria (Maitoria, Maituri), Rongdani (Rangdania). Rongdani is the standard dialect. Lexical similarity: 73% between Maituri and Rongdani. 31%–39% with Koch [kdq].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Koch.
Rajasthani
Ralte
[ral] Mizoram state: mainly Aizawl district, scattered in Chhimtuipui and Lunglei districts; Manipur and Tripura states; a few in Jampui hills. Population: 900 (2007). Ethnic population: 34,000. Status: 8a (Moribund). Dialects: None known. Related to Tedim Chin [ctd], Paite Chin [pck], Thado Chin [tcz], and Zo [zom].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern.
Rangkas
[rgk] Uttarakhand state: Pithoragarh district, Darchula and Munsyari sub-districts in Johar valley, Nepal border along Mahakali valley. Population: No known L1 speakers. The last speaker either died or shifted entirely to Kumaoni [kfy] by the 1950s. Ethnic population: 1,010 (2000). Status: 9 (Dormant). Alternate Names: Canpa, Chyanam, Johari, Kyonam, Saukas, Saukiya Khun, Shaukas. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Almora.
Ranglong
[rnl] Assam and Mizoram states; Tripura state: Joitang village. Population: 8,000 (2003 BI). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Langlo, Langlong, Langlu, Langrong, Lengreng, Riam chong, Ronglong. Autonym: Ranglong. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified.
Rathawi
[rtw] Gujarat state: Panchmahals district; Vadodara district, Chhota Udaipur and Kavant sub-districts; Madhya Pradesh state: Jhabua district, Alirajpur sub-district. Population: 451,000 (2006 IMB). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bal-La, Kohelia, Rathwi. Dialects: None known. 76% intelligibility of Bhilali [bhi]. A chain of related varieties from Bhilali to Rathawa; extremes have limited mutual intelligibility. Lexical similarity: 83% with Bhilali [bhi].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Ravula
[yea] Karnataka state: Kodagu district; Kerala state: Kannur district; Wayanad district, Mananthavadi sub-district. Population: 26,900 (2007). 25,000 Yerava and 1,900 Adiya. Ethnic population: 47,000 (2007). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Adiya, Adiyan, Iryavula, Panjiri Yerava, Yerava, Yoruba. Dialects: Adiya, Pani Yerava, Panjiri Yerava. 93%–94% dialect intelligibility between Yerava and Adiya dialects. Pani Yerava may be a dialect of Ravula or of Paniya [pcg]. Lexical similarity: 83%–98% among Yerava and Adiya varieties, 53%–61% with standard Malayalam [mal], 35%–40% with Badaga [bfq], 32%–42% with colloquial Kannada [kan], 66%–74% Pani Yerava dialect with the Adiya and Yerava dialects.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Malayalam.
Rawang
[raw] Arunachal Pradesh state: near Myanmar and Tibet border (Kunlang). Population: 1,000 in India (2011 SIL). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Ch’opa, Chiutse, Ganung-Rawang, Hkanung, Kiutze, Krangku, Taron. Dialects: Kunlang.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Nungish.
Rawat
[jnl] Uttarakhand state: Pithoragarh district, north of Askot Maila, 9 villages. Population: 670 (1998). Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Ban Manus, Ban Rauts, Bhulla, Bãt-kha, Dzanggali, Jangali, Janggali, Jhangar, Raji, Raut. Dialects: None known. Extensive borrowing from areal Indo-Aryan (Kumaoni, Nepali) languages (2011 J. Fortier). Very similar to Raute [rau] and Raji [rji].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Raute-Raji.
Reli
[rei] Andhra Pradesh state: near Adivasi Oriya [ort] language area; Odisha state: Koraput district. Population: 13,000 (2011 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Relli. Dialects: Possibly a dialect of Odia [ory].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Oriya.
Riang
[ria] Assam state: Karimganj district; Mizoram state: Aizawl, Chhimtuipui, and Lunglei districts, Karnafuli river bank area, 30 villages; Tripura state: north and central. Population: 58,500 in India (2011 census). Ethnic population: 144,000. Total users in all countries: 59,000. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bru, Reang, Tipra. Autonym: Kau Bru. Dialects: Considered dialect of Kok Borok [trp] called Polong-O (Muanthanga).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Dimasa-Kokborok, Kok Borok.
Rongpo
[rnp] Uttarakhand state: Chamoli district, Joshimath sub-district, Bampa, Gamshali, Malari, and Niti villages; Mana valley, Aut, Benakuli, Gajkoti, Hanuman Chatti, Indradhara, Pathiya-Dhantoli, and Mana. Mana and Niti valleys (Marchha), Niti valley (a few Tolchha). Population: 7,500 (2001 D. Bradley). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Rang Po Bhasa, Rangkas, Rangpa, “Manchhi Bhassa” (pej.), “Marchha” (pej.), “Marchha Pahari” (pej.), “Tolchha” (pej.). Dialects: Marchha, Tolchha. A Himalayan language distinct from Tibetan [bod].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Ruga
Sadri
[sck] Bihar state: Aurangabad; Chhattisgarh state: Surguja; Jharkhand state: Chatra, Latehar, Palamu, and Ranchi districts. Population: 12,130,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 5,130,000 in India (2011 census). 19,100 Gawari, 763,000 Nagpuria, and 4,350,000 Sadri (2011 census). L2 users: 7,000,000 (2007 B. Waugh). Total users in all countries: 12,131,225 (as L1: 5,131,180; as L2: 7,000,045). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Trade language among tribal groups in Assam, who are called the Adivasi peoples. They were brought in by British tea planters in the 19th century to work as laborers in the tea fields of Assam. Alternate Names: Chota Nagpuri, Dikku Kaji, Ganwari, Gauuari, Gawari, Goari, Jharkhandhi, Nagpuri, Nagpuria, Sadan, Sadana, Sadani, Sadati, Sadhan, Sadhari, Sadna, Sadrias Khatoya, Sadrik, Santri, Siddri, Sradri. Autonym: सादरी (Sadari). Dialects: 77% of Oraon Sadri [sdr] of Bangladesh. Speakers name 3 registers of Sadri: Sadani (finer, respectful, formal), Common Sadri (Nagpuri), and Lower Sadri (rough). Lexical similarity: 77%–96% between dialects, 58%–71% with Hindi [hin], 47%–54% with Odia [ory], 45%–61% with Bengali [ben].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bihari.
Sakachep
[sch] Assam state: Cachar Hills, North Cachar Hills, and Karbi Anglong districts; Meghalaya state: Jaintia Hills district, Mongor, Rumphung, and Saithsma villages; Nagaland state: Kohima district, Khelma village; Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura states. Population: 25,000 (2003). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Khelma, Sakechep. Dialects: Khelma, Thangkachep, Sakachep (Sakechep). Dialects may be simply alternate names for Sakechep depending on the region.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Central, Mizo.
Sambalpuri
[spv] Chhattisgarh state: Jagdalpur, Raigarh, and Raipur districts; Odisha state: Balangir, Bargarh, Boudh, Deogarh, Jharsuguda, Kalhandi, Nuvapada, Sambalpur, Sonpur, and Sundargarh districts. Population: 2,630,000 (2011 census). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Dom, Kosali, Koshal, Koshali, Kosli, Oriya, Western Oriya. Autonym: କୋଶଳୀ (Koshali). Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 75%–76% with Oriya [ory]. A member of macrolanguage Oriya [ori].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Oriya.
Samvedi
Sansi
[ssi] Haryana state: Sirsa district; Punjab state: Bathinda and Muktsar districts; Rajasthan state: Hanumangarh district; scattered elsewhere in Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh states. Population: 60,000 in India (Gusain 2002). Total users in all countries: 78,100. Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Bhilki, Sansiboli. Dialects: Intermediate between Eastern Punjabi [pan] and Hindustani (see Hindi [hin]). Sometimes identify themselves as Marwari [rwr]. Related to Rajasthani [mwr], Sindhi [snd], Eastern Punjabi. Lexical similarity: 71% with Urdu [urd], 83% with the Sochi dialect of Sansi [ssi](1998). Numerous phonological and morphological borrowings from Eastern Punjabi [pan], Hindi [hin], and Gujarati [guj] (Gusain 2002).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western Hindi, Hindustani, Sansi.
Sanskrit
[san] Uttar Pradesh state: Allahabad, Jaunpur, Kaushambi, and Pratagarh districts; Delhi and other urban areas; revival efforts in villages. Population: 5,004,800 in India, all users. L1 users: 24,800 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 4,980,000 (2001 census). Total users in all countries: 5,007,800 (as L1: 24,800; as L2: 4,983,000). Status: 4 (Educational). Statutory language of national identity (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Autonym: संस्कृतम् (Saṃskṛtam). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan.
Santhali
[sat] Bihar state: Bhagalpur and Munger districts; Jharkhand state: Hazaribagh and Manbhum districts; Odisha state: Balasore district; West Bengal state: Bankura and Birbhum districts; Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura states. Population: 7,340,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 7,620,280 (as L1: 7,619,300; as L2: 980). Status: 4 (Educational). Statutory language of provincial identity in Jharkhand State (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII), amended 2003. Alternate Names: Har, Hor, Samtali, Sandal, Sangtal, Santal, Santali, Santhiali, Satar, Sentali, Sonthal. Autonym: Har Rar. Dialects: Karmali (Khole), Kamari-Santali, Lohari-Santali, Manjhi, Paharia. Reportedly similar to Ho [hoc], Mundari [unr], and Munda [unx].
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Santali.
Saraiki
[skr] Haryana state: Bhiwani, Fatehabad, Hisar, Karnal, Kurukshetra, Palwal, Panipat, Sirsa, Sonipat, and Yamunanagar districts; Punjab state: Fatehgarh Sahib, Fazilka, Firozpur, and Patiala districts; Rajasthan state: Bikaner and Ganganagar districts. Population: 109,000 in India (2011 census). Status: 5* (Dispersed). Alternate Names: Multani, Mutani, Seraiki, Siraiki. Dialects: Jafri, Riasati (Bahawalpuri, Bhawalpuri, Reasati).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Panjabi, Western Panjabi.
Sartang
[onp] Arunachal Pradesh state: West Kameng district, Nafra and Dirang sub-districts, Darbu, Jerigaon, Khoina, Khoitam, Rahung, and Sellary villages. Population: 1,000 (2005). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Bootpa, But Monpa, But Pa, Matchopa. Autonym: Sartang. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 49%–60% with Sherdukpen [sdp].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Kho-Bwa.
Saurashtra
[saz] Tamil Nadu state: North Arcot, Chengai-Annai, Dindugul, Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Salem, Thanjavur, Tiruchchirappalli, and Tirunelveli districts; Chennai, Deccan, Madurai, Salem, and Thanjavur cities; Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka states. Population: 248,000 (2011 census). Each listed district has communities of at least 5,000. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Palkar, Patnuli, Saurashtri, Sourashtra, Sowrashtra. Autonym: சௌராட்டிர மொழி (Caurāṭṭira moḻi). Dialects: Southern Saurashtra, Northern Saurashtra. Indo-Aryan elements reveal Gujarati [guj] relationship; some structure from Dravidian, lexicon from Telugu [tel] and Tamil [tam]. An Indo-European island surrounded by Dravidian languages. The 3 main populations in Salem, Thanjavur, and Madurai cities had between 67% and 97% inherent intelligibility among themselves. Lexical similarity: 77%–96% between all varieties. The 3 main populations: 84%–96%. Southern dialects have 83% or higher lexical similarity with Thanjavur variety.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Gujarati.
Sauria Paharia
[mjt] Bihar state: Bhagalpur; Jharkhand state: Godda and Sahibganj districts, Rajmahal hills; Pakaur district, Litipara sub-district; West Bengal state: Murshidabad district. Population: 235,000 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 242,000. Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Malatri, Maler, Malti, Malto, Maltu, Rajmahali, Sawriya Malto. Autonym: सौरिया पहाड़िया (sauriya pahaadiya). Dialects: Sahibganj, Godda, Hiranpur, Litipara (Chatgam). Some intelligibility of Kumarbhag Paharia [kmj]. Lexical similarity: 80% with Kumarbhag Paharia [kmj].
Classification: Dravidian, Northern.
Sentinel
Shekhawati
[swv] Haryana state: Mahendragarh district; Rajasthan state: Jhunjhunun, Churu, and Sikar districts. Population: 3,000,000 (2002 L. Gusain). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Shekhawati-Marwari. Dialects: Jhunjhunu-Churu, Sikar. 78% comprehension of Marwari [rwr], 72% intelligibility of Dhundari [dhd]. Lexical similarity: 74%–77% between dialects; 51%–68% with Marwari [rwr], 58%–80% with Merwari [wry], 45%–69% with Godwari [gdx], 57%–66% with Mewari [mtr], 66%–73% with Dhundari [dhd], 58%–66% with Haroti [hoj], 57%–70% with Mewati [wtm], 69%–76% with Bagri [gda], 61%–73% with Haryanvi [bgc], 55%–69% with Hindi [hin]. A member of macrolanguage Marwari [mwr].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Rajasthani, Marwari.
Shendu
[shl] Mizoram state. Population: Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Khieng, Khyen, Sandu, Shandu. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Southern.
Sherdukpen
[sdp] Arunachal Pradesh state: West Kameng district, Rupa (Kupa), Shergaon, and Thungrao villages; Maharashtra state: Jigaon; Assam state. Population: 3,100 (2001). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Ngnok. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 49%–60% with Sartang. Burling (2003) groups it with Puroik [suv] and Bugun [bgg] and possibly also with Lish [lsh] and Sartang [onp].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Kho-Bwa.
Sherpa
[xsr] West Bengal state: Darjeeling district; Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim states. Population: 16,000 in India (2011 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Serwa, Sharpa, Sharpa Bhotia, Sherwi tamnye, Xarba, Xiaerba. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang.
Shina
[scl] Jammu and Kashmir state: Bandipore and Kargil districts, Dras and Kishenganga valleys, Gurais area. Population: 32,200 in India (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Shinaki, Sina. Dialects: Drasi, Gurezi.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Northwestern, Dardic, Shina.
Sholaga
[sle] Karnataka state: Mysore district, Biligiri Rangana hills; Tamil Nadu state. Population: 24,000 (2006 IMB). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kadu Sholigar, Sholanayika, Sholiga, Sholigar, Solaga, Solagaru mattu, Solanayakkans, Solega, Soliga, Soligar. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 65% with Kannada [kan].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil.
Shom Peng
[sii] Andaman and Nicobar Islands state: interior Great Nicobar island. Population: 400 (2004). Mainly monolingual. Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Shobang, Shom Pen, Shompen, Shompeng. Dialects: None known. Distinct from other Nicobarese languages.
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Nicobar, Shom Peng.
Shumcho
[scu] Himachal Pradesh state: Kinnaur district, Puh sub-district, Kanam, Labrang, Shyaso, Spilo, Rushkaling, and Taling villages. Population: 2,170 (1998). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Central Kinnauri, Shumcu, Sumcho, Sumchu, Sumtsu, Thebarskad, Thebor, Thebör Skadd. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 70% with Jangshung [jna], 67% with Sunam [ssk], 45% with Pahari Kinnauri [kjo], 43% with Chitkuli Kinnauri [cik].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Sikkimese
[sip] Sikkim state: all districts; West Bengal state: Darjeeling. Population: 70,300 (2001). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Bhutia, Dandzongka, Danjongka, Danyouka, Denjong, Denjongkha, Denjongkä, Denjongpa, Denjonka, Denjonke, Denzong Ke, Denzongke, Denzongpe Ke, Denzongpeke, Dranjoke, Dranjongke, Drendzongké, Lachengpa, Lachungpa, Sikami, Sikkim Bhotia, Sikkim Bhutia. Autonym: འབྲས་ལྗོངས་སྐད (’bras ljongs skad). Dialects: None known. Partially intelligible of Dzongkha [dzo] of Bhutan. Lexical similarity: 65% with Dzongkha [dzo] of Bhutan, 42% with Tibetan [bod].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, Southern.
Simte
[smt] Manipur state: Churachandpur district, Dumsao, Khungung, Leikangpai, Lungthul, Maokot, Mingjang, Moijin, Monjon, New Bazar, Pamjal, Sasinoujang, Shumtuk, Simveng, Singhat, Suangdai, Suangpuhmun, Tallian, Thanlon, Tubuong, and Zouthang. Population: 10,200 (2001 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Autonym: Simte. Dialects: None known. An alternate name for Paite [pck] (Singh 1994b).
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern.
Sindhi
[snd] Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh states. Population: 1,740,000 in India (2011 census). Ethnic population: 3,000,000. Status: 5 (Dispersed). Statutory language of provincial identity in Rajasthan State (1950, Constitution, Articles 345–347), Schedule VIII addition, 1961. Dialects: Bhatia, Jadeji, Kayasthi, Lari, Lasi, Thareli, Thari, Viccholi, Visholi.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Northwestern, Sindhi.
Singpho
[sgp] Arunachal Pradesh state: Changlang and Lohit districts; Assam state: Dibrugarh and Sibsagar districts; Tinsukia district, Margherita sub-district. Population: 3,500 (Morey 2006). 2,500 Singpho and 1,000 Turung speakers (Morey 2006). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Jingphaw, Kachin, Sing-Fo. Dialects: Turung. Turung has a smaller Tibeto-Burman vocabulary and a higher proportion of lexical items of Tai origin (Morey 2010). Lexical similarity: 50% with Jingpho [kac] of Myanmar.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Jingppaw-Asakia, Jingphaw.
Sirmauri
[srx] Himachal Pradesh state: Shimla district, southeast section; Sirmaur district. Population: 400,000 (2005 SIL). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Himachali, Pahari, Sirmouri, Sirmuri. Dialects: Dharthi (Giriwari), Giripari. Difficult intelligibility between Dharthi and Giripari; and between Upper Mahasui and Giripar. Dharthi dialect more influenced by Hindi. In south Shimla District, Kiunthali and Sirmauri are used interchangeably. Reportedly a different variety of Sirmauri in Sirmaur District. Lexical similarity: 56%–70% with Dharthi and Giripari, with considerable variation within each dialect; Giripari 67% with Lower Mahasui, 65% with Upper Mahasui, 61% with Jaunsari [jns].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Pahari, Western Pahari.
Sora
[srb] Andhra Pradesh state: Srikakulam district; Assam state: Plains division; Odisha state: Ganjam, Koraput, and Phulbani districts; Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal states. Population: 410,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Sabar, Sabara, Saonras, Saora, Saura, Savara, Sawaria, Shabari, Soura, Swara. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, South Munda, Koraput Munda, Sora-Juray-Gorum, Sora-Juray.
Spiti Bhoti
[spt] Himachal Pradesh state: Lahaul Spiti district, Spiti sub-district; Jammu and Kashmir state: southeast Leh district. Population: 10,000 (2000). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Nyam, Piti Bhoti. Dialects: Not intelligible of Ladakhi [lbj]; low intelligibility of Stod Bhoti [sbu]. All areas of Spiti understand each other. Lexical similarity: 41% with the Lhasa Tibetan dialect of Central Tibetan [bod], 57% with Ladakhi (Leh) [lbj], 57% with Stod Bhoti [sbu] from Darcha.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, Western.
Stod Bhoti
[sbu] Himachal Pradesh state: Lahul region, Khoksar, upper Mayar, and Stod valleys. Population: 2,500 (1996). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Lahul Bhoti, Stod, Stod-Kad, Tod, Tod-Kad. Dialects: Stod (Kolong), Khoksar (Khoksar Bhoti), Mayar (Mayar Bhoti, Mayari). 85% intelligibility of Stod Bhoti by Khoksar, 75% by Mayar, 62% of Khoksar by Mayar, 95% of Khoksar by Stod Bhoti. Lexical similarity: 74% with Spiti Bhoti [spt].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, Western.
Sunam
[ssk] Himachal Pradesh state: Kinnaur district, Puh sub-district, Sunam village. Population: 560 (1998). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Central Kinnauri, Sangnaur, Sungam, Sungnam, Sunnam, Thebarshad, Thebor, Thebör Skadd. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 67% with Shumcho [scu], 65% with Jangshung [jna], 38% with Pahari Kinnauri [kjo] and Chitkuli Kinnauri [cik].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Surgujia
[sgj] Chhattisgarh state: Jashpur, Koriya, and Surguja districts; Korba and Raigarh districts’ border areas. Population: 1,740,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Suraji, Surguja, Surgujia-Chhattisgarhi, Surjugia. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 71%–76% with Chhattisgarhi [hne].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Eastern, East Central.
Surjapuri
[sjp] Bihar state: Katihar, Kishanganj, and Purnea districts; West Bengal state: Dakshin Dinajpur and Uttar Dinajpur districts. Population: 2,260,000 (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Sura. Dialects: None known. Preliminary survey results show intelligibility of Nepali Rajbanshi [rjs]. Lexical similarity: 70%–74% with Hindi [hin], 67%–71% with the western variety of Kamta [rkt] spoken near Dinajpur, 77%–86% with varieties of Surjapuri.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bihari.
Sylheti
[syl] Assam state: Barak valley region, Cachar, Hailakandi, and Karimganj districts; Tripura state: North Tripura district; possibly Nagaland, Kolkata. Population: 3,000,000 in India (2003). Status: 5* (Dispersed). Alternate Names: Bengali of Cachar, Sileti, Siloti, Srihattia, Sylheti Bangla, Sylheti Bengali, Sylhetti, Syloti, Syloty. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Bengali-Assamese.
Tagin
Tamang, Eastern
[taj] Arunachal Pradesh state; Sikkim state: Rangit and lower Teesta valleys; West Bengal state: Darjeeling. Population: 20,200 in India (2011 census). Ethnic population: 272,000 (2006 FTT). Status: 4 (Educational). Alternate Names: Tamang. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Tamang.
Tamil
[tam] Andhra Pradesh state: Chittoor and Sri Potti Sriramulu Nellore districts, east Puducherry enclaves; Karnataka state: Chamarajana district; Kerala state: south; assorted border areas; Tamil Nadu state. Population: 74,850,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 68,900,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 5,950,000 (2001 census). Total users in all countries: 80,989,130 (as L1: 75,039,130; as L2: 5,950,000). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Tamil Nadu State; union territories Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Damulian, Tamal, Tamalsan, Tambul, Tamili. Autonym: தமிழ் (Tamiḻ). Dialects: Adi Dravida, Aiyar, Aiyangar, Arava, Burgandi, Kongar, Madrasi, Madurai, Tamil, Sri Lanka Tamil, Malaya Tamil, Burma Tamil, South Africa Tamil, Tigalu, Harijan, Sanketi, Hebbar, Mandyam Brahmin, Secunderabad Brahmin. Burgandi are nomadic. Aiyar and Aiyangar are Brahmin dialects. Southern dialect around Madurai is literary standard. Eastern dialect is colloquial standard (Zvelebil 1998). Sanketi dialect in Karnataka used by immigrants from Madurai and Shenkotta in Tamil Nadu. Lexicon greatly influenced by Kannada.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil.
Telugu
[tel] Mainly Andhra Pradesh state; Chhattisgarh state: Bijapur; Karnataka state: Bangalore Rural, Bellary, east Bidar, Chikkaballapura, Chitradurga, Gulbarga, all of Kolar, Raichur, Tumkur, and Yadgir; Maharashtra state: Gadchiroli district, eastern enclaves; Puducherry union territory; Odisha state: Gajapati, Koraput, Malkangiri, and Rayagada; Tamil Nadu state: Thirvallur and Vellore. Population: 91,900,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 80,900,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 11,000,000 (2001 census). Total users in all countries: 93,040,340 (as L1: 82,040,340; as L2: 11,000,000). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Andhra Pradesh State; Puducherry Union Territory, Andaman and Nicobar islands (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Alternate Names: Andhra, Tailangi, Telangire, Telegu, Telgi, Tengu, Terangi, Tolangan, “Gentoo” (pej.). Autonym: తెలుగు (Telugu). Dialects: Berad, Dasari, Dommara, Golari, Kamathi, Komtao, Konda-Reddi, Salewari, Telangana, Telugu, Vadaga, Srikakula, Vishakhapatnam, East Godaveri, Rayalseema, Nellore, Guntur, Vadari, Yanadi (Yenadi).
Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Telugu.
Teressa
[tef] Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory: Bompoka, Central Nicobar islands, and Teressa. Population: 2,080 (2001 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Taih-Long. Dialects: Bompoka (Bompaka, Pauhut).
Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Nicobar, Chowra-Teressa.
Thachanadan
[thn] Kerala state: Malappuram district, Nilambur area; Wayanad district, Ambalavayal, Kalpetta, Meppadi, and Muttil sub-districts. Population: 3,000 (2004 survey). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Moopan, Thacchanadens, Thachanad Muppans. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 60%–64% with Malayalam [mal], 50%–54% with Tamil [tam], 66%–72% with Mullu Kurumba [kpb].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Unclassified.
Thangmi
[thf] Sikkim state: East district, Aritar Sunua; West Bengal state: Darjeeling and scattered. Population: 500 in India. Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Thami. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Thangmi-Baraamu.
Tharu, Chitwania
[the] Uttar Pradesh state: Kushinagar district, on Nepal border. Population: Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Unclassified.
Tharu, Dangaura
[thl] Uttar Pradesh state: Bahraich district; Gonda district, Tulsipur sub-district; Kheri district, Nighasan sub-district border. Population: 174,000 in India (2007). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Chaudary, Chaudhari, Chaudhuri, Dang, Dangali, Dangora, Dangura, Tharu. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Unclassified.
Tharu, Kathariya
[tkt] Uttar Pradesh state: Bahraich and Kheri districts near Nepal border. Population: Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kathoriya Tharu, Khatima Tharu, Tharu. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Unclassified.
Tharu, Kochila
[thq] Bihar state: Pashchim Champaran district, on Nepal border. Population: Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Saptari. Dialects: Morangia.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Unclassified.
Tharu, Rana
[thr] Uttar Pradesh state: Lakhimpur Kheri district, Paliakalan sub-district, Chandan Chauki block, on Nepal border; Uttarakhand state: Udham Singh Nagar district, Khatima sub-district. Population: 150,000 in India (2003). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Rana Thakur, Tharu, Tharuwa. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Eastern, Unclassified.
Thulung
[tdh] Sikkim and Uttar Pradesh states; West Bengal state: Darjeeling district. Population: Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Thulunge Rai. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western.
Tibetan
[bod] Himachal Pradesh state: Tibet border; Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Sikkim, and Uttarakhand states. Population: 83,800 in India (2011 census). Status: 5* (Dispersed). Alternate Names: Bhotia, Bod, Central Tibetan, Phoke, Pohbetian, Poke, Skad, Tebilian, Tibate. Dialects: Aba (Batang), Dartsemdo (Tatsienlu), Dru, Gtsang, Hanniu, Kongbo, Nganshuenkuan (Anshuenkuan Nyarong), Panakha-Panags, Paurong.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central.
Tinani
[lbf] Himachal Pradesh state: Lahaul Spiti district, lower Chandra, Rangloi, and Tinan valleys; Gondhla is main village. Population: 11,600 in India (2011 census). Total users in all countries: 12,050. Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Gondhla, Gondla, Lahauli, Lahouli, Lahuli, Rangloi, Teenan, Tinan Lahuli. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 63%–56% with Pattani [lae], 32%–37% with Bunan [bfu], 21% with the Spiti [spt] and Stod [sbu] varieties of central Tibetan [bod], 62% with Tandi village, 34% with Shumcho [scu], 32% with Jangshung [jna], 31% with Kanauri and Sunam [ssk], 13% with Tibetan [bod].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Tiwa
[lax] Assam state: Kamrup, Karbi Anglong, Lakhimpur, Nagaon, and Sibsagar districts; Meghalaya state: Khasi Hills district. Population: 33,900 (2011 census). Ethnic population: 171,000 (2001 census). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Dowyan, Lalung. Dialects: Hajowali, Datiyali.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Boro-Garo, Boro-Tiwa.
Toda
[tcx] Tamil Nadu state: Kunda and Nilgiri hills. Population: 1,560 (2001 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Todi, Tuda. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 24% with Kota [kfe], the most similar language.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Toda-Kota.
Toto
[txo] West Bengal state: Jalpaiguri district, Dhunchipara, Panchayatpara, and Subhapara areas, Totopara village on Indo-Bhutan border. Population: 1,400 (2012 SIL). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Dialects: None known. Not inherently intelligible of Dhimal [dhi] of Nepal. Lexical similarity: low with Dhimal [dhi].
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Dhimalish.
Tshangla
[tsj] Arunachal Pradesh state: West Kameng district, Dirang area; Assam state: Udalguri district, Mechuka and Tuting sub-districts, Bishing Mechuka, Bona, Dorgling Halung, Galling, Korfu, Namsu, Opu, Sangti, Tempang, and Tuting villages; possibly West Siang district. Population: 11,200 in India (2007). 8,200 in Kameng District; 3,000 in West Siang. Status: 5 (Dispersed). Alternate Names: Cangluo Menba, Central Monpa, Dirang, Memba, Menba, Monba, Monpa, Motuo, Sangla, Sharchopkha, Tsangla. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish.
Tukpa
[tpq] Himachal Pradesh state: Kinnaur district, Charang, Kunnu, and Nesang villages. Population: 610 (2000). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Nesang, Nyam-Kad, Nyam-kat, Nyamkad. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Kinauri.
Tulu
[tcy] Karnataka state: Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts; Kerala state: Kasargod district; scattered in other states. Population: 1,850,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Tal, Tallu, Thalu, Thulu, Tilu, Tullu, Tuluva Bhasa. Autonym: ತುಳು (Tulu), ತುಳು ಭಾಷೆ (Tuḷu bhāṣe). Dialects: Northwest Tulu (Mangalore, Udipi), Northeast Tulu (Belthangadi, Kerala), Southwest Tulu (Kasaragod, Manjeswara), South Central Tulu (Bantwal, Puttur), Southeast Tulu (Sullia Subrahmanya), Brahmin Tulu, Common Tulu.
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tulu.
Turi
[trd] Chhattisgarh state: Raigarh district, and scattered throughout; Jharkhand state: Gumla, Lohardaga, and Ranchi districts, Chotanagpur area; Odisha state: Sambalpur and Sundargarh districts; West Bengal state: Bankura, Birbhum, Murshidabad, and Nadia districts. Population: 2,000 (2007). Ethnic population: 354,000 (2007). Status: 8a (Moribund). Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Santali.
Turung
[try] Assam state: Golaghat district, Karbi Anglong and Titabar. Population: No known L1 speakers. Status: 10 (Extinct). Alternate Names: Tai Turung, Tailung, Tairong. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Jingppaw-Asakia, Jingphaw.
Ullatan
[ull] Kerala state: Alleppey, Ernakulam, Idukki, Koliam, Kottayam, Palakkad, Pathanamthitta, Thrissur, and Trivandrum districts. Population: No known L1 speakers. Survived into the 1990s. Ethnic population: 16,700 (2001 census). Status: 9 (Dormant). Alternate Names: Katan, Kattalan, Kochuvelan, Ulladan. Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Unclassified.
Urali
[url] Kerala state: Idukki district, Memari and Vanchivayal villages. Population: No known L1 speakers. Survived into the 2000s. Ethnic population: 6,440 (2001 census). Status: 9 (Dormant). Alternate Names: Oorazhi, Uraly, Urli. Dialects: None known. Shares features with Tamil [tam], Irula [iru], and Kannada [kan] (Lal 1991). Lexical similarity: 60%–71% with Malayalam [mal], 54%–58% with Tamil [tam].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Kannada.
Urdu
[urd] Jammu and Kashmir state: widespread use by Muslims; Maharashtra state: Hyderabad (Dakhini). Population: 58,340,000 in India, all users. L1 users: 50,800,000 in India (2011 census). L2 users: 7,540,000 (2001 census). Status: 2 (Provincial). Statutory provincial language in Andra Pradesh State; Delhi Union Territory (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII). Statutory provincial working language in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh states (1950, Constitution, Schedule VIII), limited to official correspondence, notices and other communication. Statutory language of provincial identity in Jammu and Kashmir State (1957, State constitution, Article 145). Alternate Names: Islami, Undri, Urudu. Dialects: Dakhini (Dakani, Dakkhini, Deccan, Desia, Mirgan), Pinjari, Rekhta (Rekhti).
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western Hindi, Hindustani.
Vaagri Booli
[vaa] Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra states, and Pondicherry union territory; Tamil Nadu state: Cuddalore, Tiruvannamalai, Vellore, and Villupuram districts. Population: 9,300 (2007). Ethnic population: 12,000 (2007). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Guvvalollu, Haki Piki, Hakkipikkaru, Karikkorava, Kuruvikkaran, Marattiyan, Narakureavar, Narikkorava, Narikoravar, Rattiyan, Shikarijanam, Vaghri, Vaghriwala, Vagri, Wagri Vel, Wogri Boli. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 36% with Marathi [mar], 40% with Hindi [hin].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified.
Vaiphei
[vap] Manipur state: Churachandpur district, 30+ villages; Assam, Meghalaya, and Tripura states. Population: 42,700 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Bhaipei, Vaipei, Veiphei, Zomi. Autonym: Vaiphei. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern, Sizang.
Varhadi-Nagpuri
[vah] Andhra Pradesh state: Adilabad and Nizamabad districts; Madhya Pradesh state: Balaghat and Chhindwara districts; Maharashtra state: Akola, Amravati, and Buldana districts. Population: 6,970,000 (1995). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Berar Marathi, Berari, Dhanagari, Kumbhari, Madhya Pradesh Marathi. Autonym: वरहदी-नागपुरी (Varahadī-nāgapurī), वऱ्हाडी (Vaṟhāḍī). Dialects: Brahmani, Govari, Jhadpi, Kosti (Rangari), Kunban (Kohli), Kunbi, Mahari (Dhedi), Raipur. Regarded by some as a dialect of Marathi [mar].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern, Unclassified.
Varli
[vav] Maharashtra state: Nasik and Dhule districts; Thane district, Dahanu and Talasari sub-districts; Gujarat state: Valsad district, Dharampur sub-district, Dadra and Nagar Haveli; far north Thane district and south Gujarat state (Davari). Population: 387,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Warli. Autonym: वारली (Warli). Dialects: Davari, Western Nihiri, Eastern Nihiri. Sometimes classified as a dialect of Gujarati [guj] or Bhili [bhb]. Lexical similarity: 61%–93% among dialects, 60% with Marathi [mar], 65% with Kukna [kex].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Outer Languages, Southern, Konkani.
Vasavi
[vas] Gujarat state: Bharuch and Surat districts, south Akkalkuwa and Dhadgaon sub-districts, north of Tapti river; Satpudas; central and north Nandurbar and Nawapur sub-districts south of Tapti; Maharashtra state: Nandurbar district, Tapti river area. Population: 187,000 (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Adiwasi Bhil, Bhilori, Keski Bhil, Padwi Bhilori, Vasava, Vasava Bhil, Vasave. Autonym: वासावी (Vāsāvī). Dialects: Dehvali (Kolche), Ambodi (Ambodia, Ambodia Bhil), Dogri (Dhogri, Dhogri Bhil, Dungri), Khatalia, Kot. Not intelligible of Pauri Bareli [bfb] or Bhili [bhb]. 77%–93% intelligibility between Dogri, Khatali, Dehwali, Dubli, and Kotni varieties. Vasavi Dungri 79% intelligible of Dungra Bhil.
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Gujarati.
Vishavan
[vis] Kerala state: Ernakulam, Kottayam, and Thrissur districts, Parana and Perumuzhi, Moovatupuzha sub-district on Idamala river, Idyara range; Chalakudi river area near Ittyani. Population: 150 (Shashi and Shri 1994). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Malankudi, Malarkuti. Classification: Dravidian, Unclassified.
Waddar
[wbq] Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka states; Maharashtra state: Jalgaon district. Population: 198,000 (2011 census). Ethnic population: In India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka about 3 million (2003 IMA). Status: 6a* (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Od, Orh, Vadari, Vadda Beldar, Werders, Wodde. Classification: Dravidian, South-Central, Telugu.
Wagdi
[wbr] Andhra Pradesh state: Jhabua; Gujarat state: Panchmahals and Sabarkantha; Rajasthan state: Banswara, Dungarpur, and south Udaipur districts. Population: 3,390,000 (2011 census). Status: 3 (Wider communication). Alternate Names: Bhili, Bhilodi, Mina Bhil, Vagadi, Vagari, Vagdi, Vaged, Vageri, Vagi, Wagadi, Wagari, Waghari, Wagholi, Wagri. Autonym: वाग्दी (Vāgdī). Dialects: Kherwara, Sagwara, Adivasi Wagdi, Rewadi. Dialect intelligibility above 95%. Intelligible of Adivasi Garasia [gas] of Bhiloda. Wagdi Banswara highly intelligible of Bhilodi of Gujarat. Wagdi highly intelligible of Patelia [bhb] of Gujarat. Lexical similarity: 84% with Patelia dialects; 75%–80% with Marwari [rwr] dialects; 79%–93% with Adiwasi Garasia dialects; 79%–87% with Rajput Garasia dialects. A member of macrolanguage Rajasthani [raj].
Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Bhil.
Walungge
[ola] West Bengal state: Darjeeling district, Pankhabari area. Population: Status: 6b* (Threatened). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Unclassified.
War-Jaintia
[aml] Assam state; Meghalaya state: Jaintia and Khasi Hills area. Population: 51,600 in India (2011 census). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Amwi, Jaintia, Khasi, War, War-Khasi. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khasian.
West Bengal Sign Language
[wbs] West Bengal state: scattered. Population: 37,000 (2016 R. Johnson). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Alternate Names: Kolkata Sign Language, W.B. Sign Language, WBSL. Dialects: None known. Most similar to Indian Sign Language [ins], and especially close to the ISL variety called Bangla Sign Language in Bangladesh, which on some criteria might be considered the same language as WBSL (Johnson and Johnson 2016). Related to other sign languages in south Asia; see comments on Indian Sign Language [ins] in India.
Classification: Sign language.
Yakkha
[ybh] Sikkim state: North district; West Bengal state: Darjeeling district. Population: 810 in India (2000). Ethnic population: 6,300 (2007). Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Yakha, Yakkha Ceya, Yakkhaba. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern.
Yerukula
[yeu] Karnataka, Kerala, and Maharashtra states; Telangana state: Karimagar and north Nizamabad districts; Tamil Nadu state: Chengai Anna, Coimbatore, Nilgiri, Periyar, and Salem. Population: 68,500 (2011 census). 10,400 Korava and 58,100 Yerukula (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Erukala, Eruku Bhasha, Korava, Korchi, Kurru Bhasha, Kurutha, Yarukula, Yerkula, Yerukala, Yerukala-Korava, Yerukla, Yerukula-Bhasha. Dialects: Parikala, Sankara-Yerukala. Lexical similarity: among varieties ranges from 53%–81%, 33%–38% with Irula [iru], 28%–45% with Ravula [yea], 27%–45% with Tamil [tam].
Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil.
Zakhring
[zkr] Arunachal Pradesh state: Lohit district, Kibithoo and Walong, Lohit river area. Population: 300 in India (2002). Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Charumba, Eastern Mishmi, Meyor, Zaiwa. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Keman.
Zangskari
[zau] Jammu and Kashmir state: Kargil district south end, in Himalayas and Indus river valley; Zaskar mountains. Population: 11,400 (2001 census). Status: 6b* (Threatened). Alternate Names: Zanskari, Zaskari. Dialects: None known. 73%–81% intelligibility of Leh Ladakhi [lbj] with high standard deviation indicating some acquired intelligibility; 90% intelligibility of Stod Bhoti [sbu] of Darcha village.
Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Western.
Zou
[zom] Assam state; Manipur state: Chandel district, Singngat sub-district, Sugnu area; Churachandpur district. Population: 26,500 in India (2011 census). Status: 5* (Developing). Alternate Names: Jou, Yo, Zo, Zohâm, Zokam, Zome, Zoukam. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Kuki-Chin, Peripheral, Northern, Sizang.
