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Title
Abstract
Key Takeaways
Introduction
Lead Isotope Analysis
Methods
Results
Lead Isotope Analysis (Lia)
Summary of Results by Site
Discussion
Conclusions
References
FAQs

Yahalom-Mack, N., Galili, E., Segal, E., I., Eliyahu-Behar, A., Boaretto, A., Shilstein, S. and Finkelstein, I. 2014. New Insights to Levantine Copper Trade: Analysis of Ingots from the Bronze and Iron Ages in Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science 45: 159-177.

Profile image of Israel FinkelsteinIsrael FinkelsteinProfile image of Ehud U D I GaliliEhud U D I Galili

2014, Journal of Archaeological Science

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JAS.2014.02.004
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19 pages

Abstract

Twenty-seven ingots from the Bronze and Iron Ages in Israel were studied.Microstructure, chemical and lead isotope analysis were performed.Results indicate that the Arabah and Cyprus were the main ore sources.Cypriot copper ingots dating to the MBII/LBI identified in the Levant for the first time.Copper from Faynan was traded via the Mediterranean Sea in the Iron Age.The close association of metal ingots to the smelting operation and hence to the ore deposit makes them good candidates for provenance studies which in turn can be used for reconstructing paths of metal trade. A unique group of ingots from Hazor, Israel and two ingot groups retrieved during underwater explorations off the Carmel coast (Israel) were subjected to microstructure, chemical and lead isotope analysis. Ingots from Timna, Bir Nasib and Deir Alla, previously studied, were also subjected to bulk chemical and lead isotope analysis (LIA). The results enabled us to follow changes in the supply of copper to sites of this part of the Levant between two main copper producers: Cyprus and the Arabah (Timna and Faynan). The analyses showed that two of the ingot assemblages correspond to two different phases of Cypriot copper exportation in the second millennium BCE. The earlier phase, identified here for the first time, dated to the Middle Bronze Age II – Late Bronze Age I, consisted of trade in black copper in the form of relatively small plano-convex ingots, as suggested by the evidence from Hazor. The later phase, dated to the Late Bronze Age II, during which Cypriot copper was traded in the form of large oxhide–shaped ingots, is well-known and is evidenced by oxhide ingots recovered off the Carmel coast. A third assemblage from Neve Yam, off the same coast, consisting of 54 ingots of similar shape and composition, is identified here as the hitherto unknown product of the large-scale operations at Faynan in the Iron Age.

Key takeaways
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AI

  1. This study analyzes 27 copper ingots to elucidate Levantine copper trade routes.
  2. Cypriot ingots from the Middle Bronze Age II to Late Bronze Age I indicate early exportation phases.
  3. Faynan's copper was traded via the Mediterranean during the Iron Age, confirming its economic significance.
  4. Lead isotope analysis reveals the provenance of copper from Timna and Faynan, with significant isotopic homogeneity.
  5. The findings suggest a shift in copper trade dominance from Cyprus to Faynan in the eastern Mediterranean.

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FAQs

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What key insights were gained about copper trade networks in ancient Israel?add

The study analyzes 27 copper ingots, identifying significant trade links between Faynan and various sites in Israel, particularly during the Late Bronze Age (c. 1550-1200 BCE). This highlights the shifting dominance of copper sources between Cyprus and the Arabah region.

How was lead isotope analysis utilized to determine ingot origins?add

Lead isotope ratios were used to fingerprint copper ore sources; analyses indicated Faynan as the likely origin for ingots from sites like Neve Yam. This methodology reveals distinctions between ores, helping trace trade routes and sourcing.

What unique characteristics were found in the copper ingots from Hazor?add

The Hazor ingots contained a mixture of unrefined copper and lead oxide inclusions indicating primary smelting forms, with varying iron content up to 3%. Radiocarbon dating revealed two distinct periods, suggesting continuous copper trade from the Iron Age to Late Bronze Age.

Why are copper ingots from the Intermediate Bronze Age significant?add

Copper ingots from Central Negev dated to Intermediate Bronze Age I (c. 2400-2000 BCE) are significant as they mark early organized copper production and trade in the region. Analysis revealed origins from Wadi Faynan, linking regional trade networks.

What implications do the findings have for understanding ancient metallurgical practices?add

The microstructural analyses indicate distinctions between primary and secondary metallurgical products, showcasing varied smelting practices in the Levant. The data suggest that ancient metallurgy involved sophisticated production techniques and responsive trade systems evolving through different historical periods.

About the authors
BERJAYA
Israel Finkelstein
Tel Aviv University, Faculty Member
BERJAYA
Ehud U D I Galili
University of Haifa, Department Member

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