Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 (2022) 103649 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep Lead in the Levant during the Late Bronze and early Iron Ages Omri Yagel *, Erez Ben-Yosef 1 Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures, Tel Aviv University, 6997801 Tel Aviv, Israel A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Probably due to its relative scarcity in the archaeological record of the Late Bronze and early Iron Ages, lead is Archaeometallurgy seldom the focus of archaeometallurgical research on these periods. In the current study we turn to legacy lead Ancient metal trade isotope data in order to provenance lead artifacts from Eastern Mediterranean contexts, dated to the second half Lead isotope of the 2nd millennium BCE. These data shed new light on the circulation of lead in the Eastern Mediterranean Ancient lead Late Bronze Age prior, during and after the collapse of the Bronze Age global trade systems. We provide further support to the Iron Age notion that lead from Sardinia was circulating in Eastern Mediterranean markets and reached the Levant already Uluburun during the Late Bronze Age. We found that this trade was more common in the South-eastern Mediterranean (in Sardinia comparison to the North-eastern Mediterranean), probably as the result of geopolitical circumstances related to Cyprus the distinct spheres of influence of Egypt and Hatti at that time. Moreover, it seems that lead from Sardinia was Ugarit continuously shipped towards the east also in the face of the changing geo-economical dynamics during the Phoenicians transition between the Bronze and Iron Ages. The data were obtained mostly through the OXALID database. The current paper also aims at emphasizing the importance of shared open access databases for lead isotopes in archaeometallurgical research. 1. Introduction reveal important insights regarding Mediterranean metal trade. Together, these are fundamental to the reconstruction of trade connec­ In recent years, the study of metal provenance by means of lead tions between Cyprus and Sardinia during the LBA. isotope (LI) analysis is gaining much attention in the archaeology of the Generally, the LBA trade in the Eastern Mediterranean is viewed by Levant (e.g. Yahalom-Mack and Segal, 2009; Degryse et al., 2012; archaeologists as “international” (Knapp and Manning, 2016 and ref­ Thompson and Skaggs, 2013; Yahalom-Mack et al., 2014; Yahalom- erences therein) and the metal trade is no different (e.g. Gale and Stos- Mack et al., 2015; Kiderlen et al., 2016; Yahalom-Mack and Segal, Gale, 1987; Begemann et al., 2001; Philip et al., 2003; Gale, 2006; 2018; Vaelske et al., 2019a; Wood et al., 2019; Artioli et al., 2020; Degryse et al., 2012; Yahalom-Mack et al., 2014; Rademakers et al., Yahalom-Mack and Segal, 2020; Ben-Dor Evian et al., 2021). Tradi­ 2017). Mainly through LI studies of copper and lead ingots archaeolo­ tionally, copper and its alloys receive the most attention of metal gists have shown active exchange of goods between Sardinia and provenance studies and, today, this field is experiencing a growing in­ Cyprus, while debating the exact nature of these relations (Gale and terest also in regard to Levantine silver (e.g. Thompson and Skaggs, Stos-Gale, 1987; Stos-Gale and Gale, 1994; Gale, 1999; Gale, 2006; 2013; Wood et al., 2020; Eshel et al., 2021). But these are not the only Sabatini and Lo Schiavo, 2020:and additional references therein; metals suitable for provenance by LI analysis. Perhaps ironically, lead is Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022). typically overlooked in the metallurgical studies of the Late Bronze Although archaeologists consider Cyprus as the main supplier of (LBA) and Iron Ages (IA) in the Levant (Gale et al., 1990; Stos-Gale, copper to the Levant during the LBA, studies have shown that the set­ 2015; Yahalom-Mack and Segal, 2018, 2020:49). This is likely due to tlements of the Egypto-Canaanite city state system imported metals from the relative scarcity of archaeological lead from these periods, in com­ additional sources such as Anatolia, the Arabah and perhaps even the parison to copper and silver. Nevertheless, recent studies of ancient lead Aegean (Yahalom-Mack and Segal, 2018). Provenance studies of metals ingots (Wachsmann, 2020; Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022), along with from New Kingdom Egypt and Late Cypriot Cyprus show similar multi- previous studies of lead artifacts from Cyprus (Stos-Gale and Gale, 2010) source patterns (Gale and Stos-Gale, 1987; Stos-Gale and Gale, 2010; * Corresponding author. E-mail address: omriyagel@gmail.com (O. Yagel). 1 ORCID: 0000-0002-9483-3809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103649 Received 12 April 2022; Received in revised form 8 August 2022; Accepted 25 September 2022 Available online 20 October 2022 2352-409X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. O. Yagel and E. Ben-Yosef Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 (2022) 103649 Rademakers et al., 2017). common in Egypt during the Late Period, and elsewhere not later than During the IA, connections between the Levant and the Western the Hellenistic period (Ogden, 2000; Lehner, 2015:153-154). Mediterranean are well attested to in archaeology. Traditionally, these Probably due to its softness and less-attractive grayish color, almost are usually thought of as Phoenician related trade, which, according to no lead was used to create jewelry during the LBA and IA (e.g. Golani, various scholars, began around the 9th century BCE (Aubet, 2001; 2013), with the rings uncovered at Tel Atchana (Alalakh) in southern Markoe, 2005; Aubet, 2008; Docter, 2008). Recently, through the study Turkey being among the rare examples of such artifacts (Johnson et al., of silver hoards, an even earlier Phoenician related westward quest was 2020). Another use of lead is for amulets made of sheets of metal with suggested; LI results have demonstrated that silver of Western Medi­ curses or other divine inscriptions incised on them. Such artifacts, terranean origins have reached the Levant already as early as the second however, are not known in the Levant before the 6th century BCE half of the 10th century BCE (Eshel et al., 2019). Although the affiliation (Gager, 1999; Boschung and Bremmer, 2015; Eidinow, 2019). This fact of the Phoenicians with this potential trade was not unanimously casts doubt on the authenticity of the recently found lead amulet from accepted (Wood et al., 2019), there seem to be a general agreement on Mount Ebal, a folded lead sheet with incised curse in Hebrew dated by its the chronology and western origins of the silver (for Sardinian inter­ discoverers to the LBA or the early IA (Stripling et al., forthcoming). pretation see Eshel et al., 2019; for Iberian interpretation see Wood Lead is also found in the archaeological record as ingots, rods and et al., 2020:11). fragments of scrap metals (see examples in Table 1). Other uses of lead In light of the above, we wish to review unpublished LI data of lead might have been the restoration of ceramic vessels (like the example objects from LBA and IA contexts in the Levant, obtained through the from Sardinia Cincotti et al., 2003) and for medical purposes (e.g., as an Oxford Archaeological Lead Isotope Database (OXALID, https://oxalid. anti-inflammatory substance), as described in ancient texts (e.g. Celsus’s arch.ox.ac.uk/; All data were downloaded in August 2019) and offer ’De Medicina’ mainly book V, and Pliny the Elder’s ’Natural History’ alternative interpretations of previously published materials as well. book 34 chapter 50. For additional references see Hauptmann, These data provide new insights into lead trade in the Levant during the 2020:336). In Egypt, lead minerals were also used for eye-pigments LBA and early IA. (usually referred to as ’kohl’) (Riesmeier et al., 2022; Shortland, 2006). Additionally, lead was used for extracting silver in smelting of 2. Uses of lead lead-free silver ores (Hauptmann, 2020:338-339). This practice is claimed to have been widely used in the Iberian Peninsula during the IA Lead is an elastic and soft metal that is quite easily produced; it can (Murillo-Barroso et al., 2016; Hauptmann, 2020:338). be efficiently smelted even in very simple installations (Craddock, Lead is mentioned in Egyptian, Assyrian and Hittite texts from the 1995:205-211). Nevertheless, its usage on a large scale occurred only LBA (Partington, 1935:81-82; Moorey, 1994:293; Siegelová and Tsu­ during the Roman period (mainly due to the manufacturing of lead- moto, 2011:275-283; Hakan, 2019:801 and additional references in all). based water pipes) (Retief and Cilliers, 2006). During the Chalcolithic Based on these texts and the aforementioned uses of lead in the LBA and period and through the Early and Middle Bronze Ages, lead and lead early IA, it is evident that lead was somewhat less expensive than the minerals were used for the manufacturing of small objects such as beads other metals in circulation at the time, including copper, tin, bronze, and small tools (Hauptmann, 2020:334 and references therein), and silver and gold. It seems, however, that the value was different according occasionally as an additive for copper-based alloys, used for weapons to the region – from relatively low in Anatolia (Hakan, 2019:801), to and other objects created by the lost wax casting technique (Shalev quite high in Egypt (about a quarter that of gold, Rossi, 2009:410). et al., 2014; Ben-Yosef et al., 2016). In Anatolia and the northern Levant, there was also a widespread phenomenon of cast lead figurines of local 3. Materials, methods and results deities that peaked during the Middle Bronze Age (Yasur-Landau et al., 2021 and references therein). In the current study we use legacy LI data to discuss the possible During the LBA and early IA – the focus of the present paper – this geological origin of lead and leaded copper objects. The method has tradition ceased, as did the use of lead in weapons (except for slingshot been thoroughly described previously by others (Stos-Gale and Gale, bullets) (Emery, 1998; Yahalom-Mack, 2009:182-186). At that time, the 2009; Pernicka, 2014; Ben-Yosef, 2018; Hauptmann, 2020:480-494). vast majority of lead objects were weights for fishing nets (often referred Table 1 presents a compilation of the available LI data of LBA and early to as ’net sinkers’) (Rehren and Prange, 1998; Shortland, 2006; Yaha­ IA lead artifacts (except Sbs1 and Str1, which are leaded copper) from lom-Mack and Shalev, 2009; Galili et al., 2013b; Recht, 2016), a practice the Levant and Egypt (for site locations see Fig. 1; LI data are provided in alluded to in the Hebrew Bible (’’They sank like lead in the mighty Appendix A). Most of the data are based on OXALID, a database of the waters’’; Exodus 15:10). Lead was also used as an additive in copper- Oxford Isotrace Laboratory that was assembled and managed by the late based alloys intended for casting bronze sculptures or figurines (Part­ Noel H. Gale and Zofia Stos-Gale, as part of their efforts to promote the ington, 1935:81-82; Ogden, 2000:154-155; Artzy, 2006:66; Char­ use of LI analysis as a valid method in the archaeological toolkit. The alambous et al., 2014; Lehner, 2015:154; Yahalom-Mack and Segal, database, which includes many unpublished (and un-interpreted) data, 2018:320). However, the amount of added lead was often small, making is offering free access for comparative LI data for all. Apart from the it difficult to determine whether lead was intentionally added or was it OXALID we collected data from relevant publications. Data in OXALID the result of the use of lead-rich Cu ores. Various scholars have often lack sufficient archaeological and chronological contexts. For attempted to propose rules of thumb for making this determination some of these data we were able to update this information through (Stos-Gale et al., 1986; Craddock and Gumlia-Mair, 1988; Pernicka publications that mention the specific artifacts (see references in et al., 1990; Masson-Berghoff et al., 2018), with the lower threshold of Table 1). For data that were previously published and discussed, the intentionally added lead ranges between 2 and 6 wt-%. This issue is geological source of the lead that was suggested by the original author(s) exacerbated by the difficulty to accurately measure the average amount is also provided in Table 1, alongside our own interpretation. of lead of ancient artifacts, as lead is not mixed well within copper. It As this review includes data from multiple sources, data quality is of typically appears as inclusions of metallic lead within the Cu-matrix (the some concern. A comprehensive discussion of data quality assessments separation of the two metals happens during cooling, when the lead is beyond the scope of this paper, but a brief overview of the issue is concentrates from an emulsion that exists only in high temperatures; hereby provided. Data quality is dependent on both the precision and Scott, 2010:174), thus the analyzed material is heterogeneous and accuracy of the analytical procedures (discussed in this section) and the different spots may provide disparate readings, from pure copper to control over the archaeological contexts (discussed below). First, the almost pure lead (see example in Ben-Yosef et al., 2016). A significant precision of the measurements largely depends on the type of analytical and clearly intentional presence of lead in copper alloys became instrument and comparative materials (e.g. known standards). LI data in 2 O. Yagel and E. Ben-Yosef Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 (2022) 103649 Table 1 List of lead samples from Egypt and the Levant reviewed in the current study. Sample Region Site Sample name in Assigned Sample Suggested Suggested Citation name (this original age description provenance in provenance (this study) publication original publication study) Ntt1 Northern Tell Tayinat AAN951 LBA lead pendant Taurus Mt. Anatolia Yener et al., 1991 Levant Nta1 Northern Tell Atchana AAUI13 LBA? ingot Taurus Mt. Anatolia Johnson et al., Levant 2020 Nta2 Northern Tell Atchana AAUI9 LBA II strip Taurus Mt. Anatolia Johnson et al., Levant 2020 Nta3 Northern Tell Atchana AAUI11 LBA I ring Trabzon Unknown – Johnson et al., Levant perhaps Anatolia 2020 Nta4 Northern Tell Atchana AAUI15 LBA I ring Timna Sardinia Johnson et al., Levant 2020 Nta5 Northern Tell Atchana AAUI62 LBA rod - Anatolia Johnson, 2020 Levant Nrih1 Northern Ras Ibn Hani Hani (E)84; PN E LBA lead ingot no. 1 - Greece OXALID Levant 88 SW (HPB3) Nrih2 Northern Ras Ibn Hani Hani (E)83; PN LBA molten - Greece OXALID Levant (HPB7) Nrih3 Northern Ras Ibn Hani Hani (E)84; PN D LBA molten - Unknown - OXALID Levant 87 NE (HPB5) probably Greece/ Anatoila Nrih4 Northern Ras Ibn Hani Hani (E)84; PN LBA molten - Unknown - OXALID Levant (HPB1) probably Greece/ Anatoila Nrih5 Northern Ras Ibn Hani Hani (E)84; PN D LBA small - Greece OXALID Levant 87 NE (HPB8) Nrih6 Northern Ras Ibn Hani Hani (E)84; PN E LBA - Probably Anatolia, OXALID Levant 88 SW (HPB4) perhaps Aegean Nrih7 Northern Ras Ibn Hani Hani (E)84; PN E LBA - Probably Anatolia, OXALID Levant 88 SW (HPB6) perhaps Aegean Nrih8 Northern Ras Ibn Hani SY99 LBA litharge, - Greece OXALID Levant furnace Nrih9 Northern Ras Ibn Hani V390 LBA - Unknown - OXALID Levant probably Greece/ Anatoila Nrih10 Northern Ras Ibn Hani V390 LBA - Unknown - OXALID Levant probably Greece/ Anatoila Nrih11 Northern Ras Ibn Hani V389 LBA - Greece OXALID Levant Nrih12 Northern Ras Ibn Hani V389 LBA - Greece OXALID Levant Nrih13 Northern Ras Ibn Hani V388 LBA - Greece OXALID Levant Nrih14 Northern Ras Ibn Hani V388 LBA - Greece OXALID Levant Nrih15 Northern Ras Ibn Hani Hani (E)84; PN F LBA litharge - Anatolia OXALID Levant 87 SE (HPB2) Nrs1 Northern Ras Shamra/ 14534/AO 84/ LBA 18th c. fragment of a - Anatolia OXALID Levant Ugarit 311 figurine Pb/Ag? Nrs2 Northern Ras Shamra/ 14528/AO 84/ LBA bent bar lead - Greece OXALID Levant Ugarit 184 ingot Nrs3 Northern Ras Shamra/ 14536/AO 83/ LBA lead ingot? - Greece OXALID Levant Ugarit 368 looped ends Nrs4 Northern Ras Shamra/ 83 AO 404/RS LBA sheet, folded - Unknown – OXALID Levant Ugarit 76,810 Sheet perhaps Anatolia Nrs5 Northern Ras Shamra/ 83 AO 386 LBA - Greece OXALID Levant Ugarit Nrs6 Northern Ras Shamra/ 14531/AO 83/ LBA folded lead bar - Greece OXALID Levant Ugarit 444 Nrs7 Northern Ras Shamra/ 83 AO 290 LBA 5 small pieces of - Unknown- OXALID Levant Ugarit lead probably Greece/ Anatolia Nrs8 Northern Ras Shamra/ 83 AO 404/RS LBA axe, votive - Unknown – OXALID Levant Ugarit 76,810 Axe perhaps Anatolia Sbs1 Southern Beth-Shean BS-11 12th (Early figurine Timna/Anatolia Sardinia Yahalom-Mack & Levant Iron I) fragment Segal, 2018 Str1 Southern Tell Rehov METB-5 Iron IA rod Sardinia Sardinia Yahalom-Mack Levant and Segal, 2020 Str2 Southern Tell Rehov METB-20 Iron IIA net sinker (lead) Sardinia Sardinia Yahalom-Mack Levant and Segal, 2020 Sca1 Southern Caesarea 91–392 1600–1100 incised lead Sardinia Sardinia Yahalom-Mack Levant anchorage BCE ingot et al., 2022 (shipwreck) (continued on next page) 3 O. Yagel and E. Ben-Yosef Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 (2022) 103649 Table 1 (continued ) Sample Region Site Sample name in Assigned Sample Suggested Suggested Citation name (this original age description provenance in provenance (this study) publication original publication study) Sca2 Southern Caesarea 1637–63-1 1600–1100 incised lead Sardinia Sardinia Yahalom-Mack Levant anchorage BCE ingot et al., 2022 (shipwreck) Sca3 Southern Caesarea 91–389 1600–1100 incised lead Sardinia Sardinia Yahalom-Mack Levant anchorage BCE ingot et al., 2022 (shipwreck) Sca4 Southern Caesarea 91–390 1600–1100 incised lead Sardinia Sardinia Yahalom-Mack Levant anchorage BCE ingot et al., 2022 (shipwreck) Sh1 Southern Hahotrim 90–1074/M18/94 1400–1150 Pb ingot with Unknown -Perhaps Unknown -Perhaps Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) BCE linear design Anatolia Anatolia Sh2 Southern Hahotrim 90–1074/M18/95 1400–1150 Pb ingot with Unknown -Perhaps Unknown -Perhaps Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) BCE linear design Anatolia Anatolia Sh3 Southern Hahotrim 90–1075/M19/94 1400–1150 Pb ingot frgm Unknown -Perhaps Unknown -Perhaps Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) BCE Anatolia Anatolia Sh4 Southern Hahotrim 90–1075/M19/95 1400–1150 Pb ingot frgm Unknown -Perhaps Unknown -Perhaps Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) BCE Anatolia Anatolia Sh5 Southern Hahotrim 90–1081/M25a/ 1400–1150 Pb ingot frgm Taurus Mt. Taurus Mt. Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) 94 BCE Sh6 Southern Hahotrim 90–1081/M25a/ 1400–1150 Pb ingot frgm Taurus Mt. Taurus Mt. Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) 95 BCE Sh7 Southern Hahotrim 90–1096/M56/94 1400–1150 Pb ingot frgm Sardinia Sardinia Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) BCE Sh8 Southern Hahotrim 90–1096/M56/95 1400–1150 Pb ingot frgm Sardinia Sardinia Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) BCE Sh9 Southern Hahotrim 90–1097/M57/94 1400–1150 Pb ingot frgm Sardinia Sardinia Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) BCE Sh10 Southern Hahotrim 90–1097/M57/95 1400–1150 Pb ingot frgm Sardinia Sardinia Wachsmann, 2020 Levant (shipwreck) BCE Skzs1 Southern Kfar Zamir south 4473 LBA lead metal Sardinia Sardinia OXALID;Galili Levant (shipwreck) et al., 2011 Skzs2 Southern Kfar Zamir south 84–71 LBA lead metal Sardinia Sardinia OXALID; Levant (shipwreck) Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022 Skzs3 Southern Kfar Zamir south 84–72 LBA lead metal Sardinia Sardinia OXALID; Levant (shipwreck) Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022 Skzs4 Southern Kfar Zamir south 84–74 LBA lead metal Sardinia Sardinia OXALID; Levant (shipwreck) Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022 Skzs5 Southern Kfar Zamir south 84–75 LBA lead metal Sardinia Sardinia OXALID; Levant (shipwreck) Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022 St1 Southern Timna 200 319/288(1) LBA rod Timna Sardinia Gale et al., 1990 Levant (266a) St2 Southern Timna 200 319/288(2) LBA rod Timna Sardinia Gale et al., 1990 Levant (266b) St3 Southern Timna 200 309/2 (2 6 7) LBA ring, half Timna Sardinia Gale et al., 1990 Levant St4 Southern Timna 2 623/1 (6 2 3) LBA/Early disc Timna Unknown -Perhaps Gale et al., 1990 Levant Islamic Anatolia Sq1 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 92/0471,1 Rameses II net sinker - Unknown – OXALID; Rehren & Ramesses) perhaps Anatolia Prange, 1998 Sq2 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 92/0471,2 Rameses II net sinker - Sardinia OXALID; Rehren & Ramesses) Prange, 1998 Sq3 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 92/0571 Rameses II metal frgm. - Anatolia OXALID Ramesses) Sq4 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 92/0804 Rameses II net sinker - Greece OXALID; Rehren & Ramesses) Prange, 1998 Sq5 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 92/0954 Rameses II net sinker - Sardinia OXALID; Rehren & Ramesses) Prange, 1998 Sq6 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 92/1154 Rameses II net sinker - Greece OXALID; Rehren & Ramesses) Prange, 1998 Sq7 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 92/1206 Rameses II metal frgm. - Sardinia OXALID Ramesses) Sq8 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 92/1223 Rameses II metal frgm. - Sardinia OXALID Ramesses) Sq9 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 93/0176 Rameses II net sinker - Greece OXALID; Rehren & Ramesses) Prange, 1998 Sq10 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 93/0678 Rameses II net sinker - Unknown- OXALID; Rehren & Ramesses) probably Greece/ Prange, 1998 Anatolia Sq11 Egypt Qantir (Pi- 98/0125 Rameses II metal frgm. - Greece OXALID Ramesses) 4 O. Yagel and E. Ben-Yosef Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 (2022) 103649 Fig. 1. Map of main sites and regions mentioned in the text. the current review were obtained by thermal ionization mass spec­ First, Timna was suggested as a possible source for the four objects trometer for the OXALID (at the Isotrace laboratory, Oxford, UK), Tel found in Timna itself, one object from Tel Atchana (Nta4) and a leaded Tayinat and the Taurus Mt. ore specimens (at the National Institute of tin-bronze from Beth-Shean (Sbs1) (see references in Table 1). In Timna, Standards and Technology, US) as described by Stos-Gale et al. (Stos- however, it was only copper that was mined and produced. Lead ores are Gale et al., 1995b:408-409) and Yener et al. (Yener et al., 1991:572). Tel completely absent from Timna and there is no reason to believe that Atchana samples were analyzed using Nu Plasma MC-ICP-MS at the there ever were such ores available there (the relative high amount of University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Geosciences Department lead reported in copper from the Arabah is still in the level of impurities, (Johnson et al., 2020:271). Samples from Tel Rehov and Beth-Shean rarely exceeding 5–6 %, in Faynan and 1 % in Timna, Kiderlen et al., in were analyzed in a Nu Plasma MC-ICP-MS at the Geological Survey of prep). In the case of sample Sbs1 lead makes 20.9 % of the alloy, and Israel (Yahalom-Mack and Segal, 2018, 2020). The Caesarea anchorage cannot be seen as natural impurity. In short, the LI ratios from the copper ingots were analyzed in Neptune, Thermo MC-ICP-MS (Yahalom-Mack are completely masked by these of the added lead in the case of Sbs1 and et al., 2022). SRM-981 international comparative standard was used in thus point at the origins of the lead. The LI ratios of five of the above- the analysis of all data presented in the current review, and Thallium mentioned objects (Nta4, Sbs1, St1, St2, St3), however, agree well was used for mass-bias correction in the Caesarea anchorage ingots with LI ratios of galena only from Sardinia. It is worth noting that other analysis (ibid.). lead artifacts from the LBA sites in the Eastern Mediterranean show Data comparison of analytical results from multiple instruments has similar LI ratios and have been associated with the ores from Sardinia in raised concerns already during the establishment of the OXALID data­ previous studies (e.g. Stos-Gale and Gale, 2010; Stos-Gale, 2015; base (Stos-Gale and Gale, 2009). Baker et al. (2006) used ICP based Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022). Also, Nuragic lead artifacts from Sardinia instruments in order to re-analyze some of the OXALID samples itself that had similar LI ratios were also interpreted as originating in the (including lead and silver artifacts). They concluded that ’’for relatively same Cambrian deposits of the Iglesiente region in Sardinia (Cincotti high-lead samples (>500 ppm), there is excellent agreement between in et al., 2003; Atzeni et al., 2005). Conversely, sample St4 (from Timna situ data and previous TIMS results’’. This should not come as a surprise Site 2) has LI ratios that differ from the three other lead artifacts from as Stos-Gale et al. (1995b) previously reported 0.1 % error for replicate Timna. This sample’s LI ratios suggest the metal does not originate in measurements of the SRM-981 standard. This is to say that although Sardinia, and perhaps should be affiliated with Anatolian ores. Since the some small inaccuracies are expected in this rather large database publication of this object, the chronological context of which it came (especially for data obtained by TIMS), it is most likely that they will not from was dramatically revised. At the time of its publication, Layer 1 at dramatically alter provenance interpretations, especially not in the case Site 2 in Timna was dated to the LBA and affiliated with Egyptian related of differentiating Sardinia from Anatolia and the Aegean. For additional activity (Rothenberg, 1990). In recent years, however, the chronology of studies on LI data accuracy and instrumental comparison see e.g. Dou­ Timna was shifted and some of the activity in Site 2 is now believed to celance and Manhès, 2001; Encinar et al., 2001; Segal and Halicz, 2005; represent the early Islamic Period. Accordingly, the context of this object Baker et al., 2006; Stos-Gale and Gale, 2009; Tomczyk, 2022. is currently insecure (Ben-Yosef et al., 2012: fn. 14). In order to review the data, LI ratios were plotted on a graph against The LI ratios of lead ingots from shipwrecks found near Southern potential lead ore sources from around the Mediterranean (Fig. 2). The Levantine coasts were affiliated with Sardinian ores in most cases (Stos- current review deals solely with lead provenance. Therefore, the data Gale, 2015; Wachsmann, 2020; Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022). Artifacts presented in Fig. 2 are only of LI ratios measured in lead related Sq7 and Sq8 from Qantir share similar LI ratios with the Kefar Samir specimens. South and Caesarea ingots and probably also originate in Sardinia. Two 5 O. Yagel and E. Ben-Yosef Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 (2022) 103649 Fig. 2. LI ratios of the reviewed samples compared with lead deposits in Saudi-Arabia (Gale and Stos-Gale, 1981; Stacey et al., 1980; Worl, 1978), Egypt (Gale and Stos-Gale, 1981; Shortland, 2006; Stacey et al., 1980; Abdel-Motelib et al., 2012; OXALID), Anatolia (Yener et al., 1991; Sayre et al., 2001), Sardinia and Greece (OXALID). additional samples from Qantir (Sq2, Sq5) show LI that stand apart from ratio of this object, however, do not seem to match the data of lead other samples. Nonetheless, they are also compatible with LI data of ores related specimens from the Trabzon ore group. Lead artifacts that from Sardinia and probably even from the same region in Sardinia showed relatively similar LI ratios from LBA contexts in Cyprus were (Iglesiente). previously affiliated with the Central Massif region in France (Stos-Gale Two objects from Ras Shamra (Nrs4, Nrs8), one object from Tel and Gale, 2010). In the current study we wish to suggest alternative Atchana (Nta3) and one from Qantir (Sq1) seem to form a cluster. In its provenance interpretations of these samples. First, sample Nrs4 is in original publication, the object from Tel Atchana was claimed to have perfect agreement with galena from Capo Marargiu in Sardinia. originated in Anatolia (from the region of Trabzon). The 207Pb/204Pb Although archaeological evidence for mining in this particular area is 6 O. Yagel and E. Ben-Yosef Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 (2022) 103649 unclear, it is still possible that the ores were mined in antiquity. A few Stos-Gale and Gale, 2010). In Levantine archaeology of the early IA, the lead artifacts from LBA contexts in Sardinia are claimed to have origi­ use of Western Mediterranean metals (silver and lead) has been nated in the Bosa region (near Capo Marargiu) (or alternatively in demonstrated only recently (Thompson and Skaggs, 2013; Stos-Gale, Tuscany, Italy) (Cincotti et al., 2003). Regarding the other objects at 2015; Eshel et al., 2019; Wood et al., 2019; Wood et al., 2020). In hand, their LI ratios do not match these of Capo Marargiu as nicely as LBA contexts, the only metals from the Western Mediterranean that have sample Nrs4. Accordingly, if all four objects do share a common source, been identified so far in the Levant are lead ingots retrieved from Capo Marargiu should probably not be considered as a possibility. shipwrecks (e.g. Yahalom-Mack and Segal, 2018:316; Wachsmann, Lastly, if indeed Capo Marargiu is not a valid potential source, than the 2020; Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022), whose final destination is not clear source of these objects is, for now, unknown. In this regard, lead sources (Galili et al., 2011; Galili et al., 2013a; Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022:sec­ in Anatolia were not surveyed for LI data as thoroughly as those of tion 7.4). Sardinia, Greece and the Aegean. There are only few lead related LI The following discussion is focusing specifically on the circulation of readings from the Trabzon area and they do correlate with the trend of lead in the Levant during the LBA and early IA. We also consider data the LI data of the above-mentioned samples. Perhaps more data from the related to silver, as this metal is directly related to the exploitation of Trabzon area would restore the possibility of it being the source of the lead at that time. Silver was extracted from argentiferous lead ores by metals in question. In addition, although the possibility of recycling cupellation (Hauptmann, 2020:332-348), including in many ore fields should always be considered, in the current case the similarities of LI relevant to the discussion at hand. For example, in the case of the 10th ratios of objects from four different contexts probably suggest shared century BCE silver hoards from Dor and Akko (attributed to the Phoe­ origin rather than random alloying of lead from multiple sources. nicians, Eshel et al., 2019), the silver originated in the same mineral Artifacts Nta1, Nta2 & Nta5 (Tel Atchana), Ntt1 (Tel Tayinat), Sq3 deposits as the lead objects from Timna, Tel Atchana and Qantir (the ore (Qantir) and Nrih15 (Ras Ibn Hani) are consistent with the Taurus 1A field of Iglesiente, Sardinia). ore field. LI of ingot M25 from Hahotrim shipwreck (Sh5, Sh6) are also compatible with this field. In a previous publication the ingot was sug­ 4.1. Early Phoenicians and the LBA-IA transition gested to have originated in Bolkardağ (Taurus Mt. range) (Wachsmann, 2020:224) and object Ntt1 was affiliated with Taurus 1A and Taurus 2B Recently, LBA lead from archaeological shipwrecks along the fields (Yener et al., 1991:572). The LI of a fragment of a figurine from Southern Levantine coast was identified as originating from Sardinia Ras Shamra (Nrs1) fall in the same cluster as the above-mentioned ob­ (Wachsmann, 2020; Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022). However, as is often jects only in Graph B (Fig. 2). It has somewhat lower 206Pb/204Pb and the case with such remains, the itinerary of the cargo is not clear, and it 207 Pb/204Pb ratios, which are also slightly off the trend of the ore field is likely that the finding spot does not represent the cargo’s final desti­ and the rest of the cluster. Still, the Taurus 1A ore field is the most nation (and likewise, its origin). The current review shows, for the first probable source of that item. time, Sardinian lead at inland LBA Levantine contexts (samples St1, St2, Samples Nrih6 and Nrih7 from Ras Ibn Hani show LI ratios that are St3 from Timna and Sta4 from Tel Atchana). Until recently, the earliest compatible with ore from Siphnos (Cyclades) on both graphs. Never­ evidence for connection between the Levant and the Western Mediter­ theless, in graph B they also overlap the North-Central ore field in ranean was the 10th century BCE silver hoard from Dor, which has also Anatolia. In Graph A (Fig. 2), the LI ratios of these samples do not been interpreted as early evidence for the emergence of Phoenician overlay the data from the North-Central ore field, but they do follow trade (Eshel et al., 2019). However, the lead artifacts from the Egyptian similar trend. Archaeologists suggest that the mines in Siphnos were Temple in Timna predates this hoard by at least 100–150 years and the active during the Early Bronze and then exploitation was reinitiated only artifact from Tel Atchana is probably even earlier (Johnson et al., 2020). during the IA (Sheedy et al., 2021 and additional references therein). This, together with evidence of continued supply of Western Mediter­ Accordingly, perhaps the North-Central ore field is a better candidate as ranean metals during the LBA/IA transition in the Levant (below), calls the source of the above-mentioned items. into question the proposed Phoenician connection (cf. Thompson and The LI ratios measured in twelve samples from Rash Shamra and Ras Skaggs, 2013; Wood et al., 2019). In fact, as it is evident that metals from Ibn Hani (Nrih1, Nrih2, Nrih5, Nrih8, Nrih11, Nrih12, Nrih13, Nrih14, Sardinia reached the Levant prior to the earliest possible date of the so- Nrs2, Nrs3, Nrs5, Nrs6) are in agreement with LI data from Laurion in called Phoenician westward expansion, and without direct evidence for Greece. The same holds true for four samples from Qantir (Sq4, Sq6, Sq9, the involvement of traders from what is today the coast of Lebanon and Sq11). Samples Sq10 and Nrs7 are similar and perhaps share a common northern Israel, connecting any Western Mediterranean metal in a source; however, while in Graph A (Fig. 2) both samples fall within the Levantine context to the Phoenicians (as long-distance maritime traders) Laurion ore field, they differ from it in Graph B (Fig. 2). The two possible is not a straight-forward interpretation, and cannot be used to solve the sources they are compatible with as a cluster are Anaphi and Seriphos debated question of the emergence of early Phoenicia (for the challenges (in the Cyclades). These options should perhaps be ruled out due to the in reconstructing the emergence of early Phoenicia, see recently Leh­ lack of archaeologically identified activities in these islands during the mann, 2021; Gilboa, 2022). LBA. Yener et al. (1991) suggest that on the basis of LI data, the Anaphi The collapse of the Egypto-Canaanite system of city-states in the and Seriphos ore fields are indistinguishable from the Taurus 2B ore Levant at the end of the LBA was only part of much broader socio- field. Although the currently presented graphs (which ignore copper ore economic transformations. Archaeological and historical records or slag related data) do not fully support this notion, the Taurus 2B field testify to extensive human migrations, dramatic climate changes should be considered as a possible source for the two objects. (Langgut et al., 2013; Kaniewski et al., 2019) and in regard to the matter Four samples from Ras Ibn Hani (Nrih3, Nrih4, Nrih9, Nrih10) show at hand, collapse of the international trade systems (Knapp and Mann­ LI ratios that are not fully compatible with any of the comparative data. ing, 2016). The dramatic changes are also seen in the ancient metal It is important to note that these ratios are very much distinct from any economy (e.g. see Kiderlen et al., 2016 for Greece; Yahalom-Mack and data from Sardinia and probably represent a northern source (Aegean/ Segal, 2018 for the Levant; Ben-Dor Evian et al., 2021 for Egypt). The Anatolia) or multiple sources (due to recycling). rise of Levantine IA polities is often attributed to the economic-political vacuum caused by these changes. Hence, inter-cultural activities and 4. Discussion trade during the IA are typically considered distinct from LBA patterns. Accordingly, it could be suggested that the silver hoard from Dor should Metal trade between the Western Mediterranean and Cyprus during be viewed as part of an attempt to establish maritime international trade the LBA and early IA is already well attested to by LI analysis from both by IA societies that is both chronologically and logistically detached Cyprus and Sardinia (Gale and Stos-Gale, 1987; Gale, 1999; Gale, 2006; from the well-organized LBA trade systems. However, an alternative 7 O. Yagel and E. Ben-Yosef Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 (2022) 103649 model can be hypothesized, one in which resilient social actors played a Rademakers et al., 2018; Vaelske et al., 2019b; Ben-Dor Evian et al., role in the transition from the LBA to the early IA (cf. Meyer and Knapp, 2021). This contrast is not solely present in Egypt. As shown in the 2021), including in aspects related to trade. The currently available data current paper, lead from Sardinia was circulating in the Southern Levant support such model. Western Mediterranean origin was suggested for as early as the LBA. In this region, similarly to Egypt, no copper from lead artifacts from LBA context in Tel Atchana and Timna (this study), Sardinia was discovered in an LBA context (Yahalom-Mack and Segal, early IA (12th c. BCE) leaded copper from Beth-Shean (this study), an 2018, 2020). The only Levantine copper that has been suggested to have early IA (late 12th c. BCE) silver hoard from Beth Shean (#1095, Gen­ a Sardinian origin is from the Jatt hoard (Stos-Gale, 2006). However, telli et al., 2021 contra Eshel et al. 2021), two objects from Tel Rehov this hoard is dated to the Iron I (late 11th-early 10th centuries BCE, dated to the Iron IA and Iron IIA (Yahalom-Mack and Segal, 2020) and Artzy, 2006:95) and, more importantly, the Jatt data overlap those of the aforementioned silver from Dor. This might indicate that the supply Timna, and given other archaeological considerations, Timna is the of Sardinian lead and silver continued from the LBA into the early IA much more likely candidate. Another example is the metal cargo from without a discernible break. Hahotrim shipwreck, where Sardinian lead was identified together with A growing body of evidence indicates that the “Dark Ages” that copper from Cyprus only (Wachsmann, 2020). This recurring contrast followed the Bronze Age collapse were less “dark” than what was pre­ between lead and copper sources strongly suggest that these metals were viously assumed. It appears that the impression of complete halt in long- not traded by the same agents. Although it is tempting to view both as distance trade and all-encompassing decrease in social complexity was ’metals’ and assume a commercial link, this most probably was not the more the effect the muted period had on scholars rather than an accurate case. understanding of the reality of the time (cf. Ben-Yosef, 2019; Millek, Interestingly, the currently available results suggest that lead from 2022). Changes undoubtedly did occur. For example, Cypriot copper, Sardinia was common in Cyprus, Egypt and the Southern Levant, but which was still produced in substantial quantities at least into the early scarce in Northern Levantine sites. Also, while lead found in shipwrecks IA (11th c. BCE, Kassianidou, 2012), was no longer shipped to Egypt and near the Southern Levantine coast is mostly from Sardinia (Wachsmann, the Levant (above) and perhaps was part of a westward trade at the time. 2020; Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022), none of the ~ 100 lead artifacts from This continuity of Cypriot involvement in metal trade during the 11th the Uluburun was associated with Sardinian ores (Gale and Stos-Gale, century BCE might also indicate that they kept their role as mediators of 2005). It is noteworthy, however, that all the lead artifacts from the lead trade between Sardinia and the Levant, as was suggested recently Uluburun are utilitarian (mostly fishing net sinkers) and represent the for the LBA by Yahalom-Mack et al. (2022). In light of this, the idea that metal used by the sailors and not the commercial cargo on board the ship resilient trade agents persevered in face of the dramatic geopolitical (ibid.). Accordingly, the lead on the Uluburun most likely represent the changes in the Eastern Mediterranean coming the end of the LBA is a available lead in its home port. The exact route of the Uluburun is not reasonable hypothesis. Accordingly, 10th century BCE ties with Sardinia clear and scholars have suggested several options for its port of origin, cannot be viewed as entirely detached from earlier ties (contra Eshel most notably the Northern Levant (perhaps Ugarit) or Cyprus (Pulak, et al., 2019), and when suggesting a “new” type of connection, one 1998; Kassianidou, 1999; Cline and Yasur-Landau, 2007; Cucchi, 2008; should address the breaking point – when was it? Was it necessarily Welter-Schultes, 2008). In light of LI results, the former is much more immediately after the last Egyptian left Canaan? The data reviewed here likely, as most Cypriot lead during the LBA originated in Sardinia (Stos- demonstrate that most probably not. Gale and Gale, 2010). Similarities between LI results of the Uluburun lead and those from lead from Ugrait strengthens the possibility that this 4.2. Levantine lead circulation and the Egyptian role specific city was the port of origin of the ship (cf. Cucchi, 2008). The distribution pattern of Sardinian sourced lead in the Eastern Studies of metal provenance often portray trade routes based on Mediterranean could be explained by the fact that natural lead sources geographic considerations alone, with little to no attention to geopolit­ are found in Anatolia and the Aegean, and from an economic point of ical, economic or social ones (e.g. Gale, 2001; Gale, 2006). This view, importing lead from afar was unnecessary. But it is noteworthy simplistic assumption is probably not true in most cases related to that Egypt also had its own lead and copper sources, and still also ancient trade (cf. Knapp et al., 2022:84), and definitely not in the cur­ included imported metals in its economy (Rademakers et al., 2017; rent case of LBA lead trade. Ample evidence shows active metal trade Shortland, 2006; Abdel-Motelib et al., 2012). Also, copper production in between Cyprus and Sardinia during the LBA, both in terms of actual the Arabah was already active during the late 14th-13th centuries materials and metal related cultural traditions (Gale and Stos-Gale, (Erickson-Gini, 2014; Yagel et al., 2016) and reached Southern Levan­ 1987; Stos-Gale and Gale, 2010; Sabatini and Lo Schiavo, 2020 and tine sites, but this did not prevent the domination of northern copper additional references therein). Even more well established are the (Cypriot, Anatolian and Greek) at these sites during the LBA (Yahalom- Cypriot-Levantine trade relations during the LBA (e.g. Artzy et al., Mack and Segal, 2018). The case of lead in Ugarit (as an example) should 2013). These relations, and the fact that Sardinian lead was found in not be different than that of copper in the Southern Levantine sites or several of the above mentioned shipwrecks, probably suggest that even in Egypt. There are no lead sources in the immediate vicinity or in Cyprus acted as a middleman in the Sardinian-Levantine lead trade (also the control of Ugarit. Moreover, the city was maintaining substantial see Yahalom-Mack et al., 2022). trade relations with both Cypriot and Mycenaean merchants (Artzy Recently, scholars showed that copper from Nuragic contexts in et al., 1981; Knapp, 1983; Van Wijngaarden, 2002:39-73; Johnston, Sardinia probably originated in Sinai and the Arabah (Montero Ruiz, 2017) and as shown in the current results lead was brought to Ugarit 2018; Montero Ruiz et al., 2018). These identifications ostensibly indi­ from multiple sources, though excluding Sardinia. Why, then, lead from cate a more direct connection between the two regions during the LBA. Sardinia hardly reached the Northern Levant via Cyprus? The contrast Egyptian involvement in copper exploitation in Sinai and the Arabah between the Southern and Northern Levant is also a cultural/geopolit­ (Timna) during the LBA is demonstrated via archaeological studies (e.g. ical one, whereas the North, Ugarit included, is affiliated with the Hit­ Beit-Arieh, 1985; Rothenberg, 1988; Abdel-Motelib et al., 2012; Soma­ tites (e.g. Gilibert, 2021) and the South with the Egyptians. However, to glino and Tallet, 2013). Bearing in mind the Nuragic hoard study and the what degree this contrast in the distribution of lead reflects geopolitical Sardinian lead in Qantir and Timna, Egypt might have also played a role considerations versus purely economic ones is hard to assess at this stage in the western-eastern Mediterranean metal trade. This notion is further of research. strengthened by the increasing import of metallic lead into Egypt from the New Kingdom onwards (Ogden, 2000:168). In contrast, however, no 4.3. Methodological comment Sardinian sourced copper was identified in Qantir or any other New Kingdom contexts (Stos-Gale et al., 1995a; Rademakers et al., 2017; The current results stress the importance of open access LI related 8 O. Yagel and E. Ben-Yosef Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 (2022) 103649 databases (Ben-Yosef 2018). As noted above, the field of archaeological reviewers whose comments helped to improve this paper. The authors metal provenance has seen a surge of new studies in the past few years. would also like to thank Sahar, Ariel and Yahli for their technical con­ As some of these bring forth new insights, it is very important to make tributions to this study. this field accessible for critical reviews. This surge of data makes it difficult to keep track of all the newly published studies, and compiling Appendix A. Supplementary material digitized comparative datasets is becoming an exhausting task. In order to keep data interpretation and syntheses the main scholarly task Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. (instead of the technical data collecting and typing) databases such as org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103649. OXALID, IBERLID (https://www.ehu.eus/ibercron/iberlid), GlobaLID (https://globalid.dmt-lb.de/) and others should be actively supported References and new LI data should be directly published on such platforms. Abdel-Motelib, A., Bode, M., Hartmann, R., Hartung, U., Hauptmann, A., Pfeiffer, K., 2012. Archaeometallurgical expeditions to the Sinai peninsula and the Eastern 5. Conclusions Desert of Egypt (2006, 2008), Metalla 19. Artioli, G., Canovaro, C., Nimis, P., Angelini, I., 2020. LIA of prehistoric metals in the Our reevaluation and interpretation of lead isotope data of lead ob­ central Mediterranean area: A review. Archaeometry 62 (S1), 53–85. Artzy, M., 2006. 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