Gandum kuda

Buckwheat; Fagopyrum esculentum
Pengelasan saintifik
Alam:	Plantae
(tanpa pangkat):	Angiosperms
(tanpa pangkat):	Eudicots
(tanpa pangkat):	Core eudicots
Order:	Caryophyllales
Keluarga:	Polygonaceae
Genus:	Fagopyrum
Spesies:	F. esculentum
Nama binomial
	Fagopyrum esculentum; Moench
Sinonim
	Fagopyrum cereale Raf.; Fagopyrum dryandrii Fenzl; Fagopyrum emarginatum (Roth) Meisn.; Fagopyrum emarginatum Moench; Fagopyrum fagopyrum (L.) H.Karst. nom. inval.; Fagopyrum polygonum Macloskie nom. illeg.; Fagopyrum sagittatum Gilib. nom. inval.; Fagopyrum sarracenicum Dumort.; Fagopyrum vulgare Hill ex Druce nom. inval.; Fagopyrum vulgare T.Nees; Polygonum emarginatum Roth; Polygonum fagopyrum L.;

Gandum kuda atau gandum hitam atau buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) ialah tumbuhan yang ditanam untuk bijirinnya dan juga sebagai tanaman penutup bumi. Untuk membezakannya dari spesis berkaitan, Fagopyrum tataricum yang ditanam sebagai bijian di Pergunungan Himalaya, dan dari spesis yang kurang ditanam Fagopyrum acutatum, ia juga dikenali sebagai gandum kuda Jepun^[2] atau gandum kuda silverhull.^[2]

Walaupun namanya begitu, gandum kuda ini tiada kaitan dengan gandum kerana ia bukan spesis rumput. Malah, gandum kuda ini mempunyai kaitan dengan sorrel, knotweed, dan rubarb. Disebabkan benihnya dimakan, ia dirujuk sebagai bijirin pseudo.

Penanaman bijian gandum kuda menurun dengan mendadak pada abad ke-20 dengan penggunaan baja nitrogen yang meningkatkan produktiviti tanaman ruji lain.

Penghasilan kini

Anggaran pengeluaran dunia Pertubuhan Makanan dan Pertanian PBB tahun 2013

Negara	Luas tuaian (ha)	Pengeluaran (tan)
Russia	905,911	833,936
China	705,000	733,000
Kazakhstan	202,008	276,840
Ukraine	168,400	179,020
USA	77,500	81,000
Poland	70,384	90,874
Jepun	61,400	33,400
Brazil	48,000	62,000
Perancis	44,500	154,800
Belarus	31,403	30,353
Lithuania	30,500	28,200
Nepal	10,681	10,056
Tanzania	10,500	10,500
Latvia	9,800	10,800
Bhutan	3,000	4,500
Korea	2,392	1,923
Slovenia	1,401	1,052
Republik Czech	1,000	2,400
Bosnia dan Herzegovina	633	977
Afrika Selatan	630	250
Estonia	600	400
Croatia	190	390
Hungary	110	110
Georgia	100	100
Slovakia	92	68
Republik Moldova	61	40
Kyrgyzstan	26	25

Komposisi kimia

Biji

Kanji

71–78% dalam bentuk bijirin nyahkulit
70–91% dalam bentuk pelbagai jenis tepung^[3]^[4]^[5]
Kanji sebanyak 25% amilosa dan 75% amilopektin.
Bergantung kepada tindak balas hidroterma, gandum kuda nyahbijirin mengandungi 7–37% kanji tahan.

Protein

Protein mentah sebanyak 18%, dengan nilai biologi melebihi 90%.^[6] Ini boleh diterangkan dengan kepekatan tinggi semua asid amino penting,^[7] terutamanya lisina, treonina, triptofan, dan asid amino yang mengandungi sulfur.^[8]

Galian

Kaya dalam zat besi (60–100 ppm), zink (20–30 ppm) dan selenium (20–50 ppb)^[9]^[10]

Antioksida dalan bentuk fenolik

10–200 ppm rutin, 0.1–2% tanin^[11] dan kehadiran katekin-7-O-glukosida dalan nyahbijirin.^[12]

Sebatian beraroma

salisilaldehid (2-hidroksibenzaldehid) dikenalpasti sebagai komponen aroma gandum kuda.^[13] 2,5-dimetil-4-hidroksi-3(2H)-furanon, (E,E)-2,4-dekadienal, fenilasetaldehid, 2-metoksi-4-vinilfenol, (E)-2-nonenal, dekanal dan heksanal juga menyumbang kepada aroma. Kesemuanya mempunyai nilai aktiviti bau melebihi 50, tetapi aroma bahan ini dalam keadaan terasing dan tidak menyerupai gandum kuda.^[14]

Terbitan Inositol

Fagopiritol A1 dan fagopiritol B1 (isomer mono-galaktosil D-kiro-inositol), fagopyritol A2 dan fagopyritol B2 (isomer di-galaktosil D-kiro-inositol), dan fagopyritol B3 (tri-galaktosil D-kiro-inositol)^[15]

Herba

Antioksidan

1–10% rutin dan 1–10% tanin^[16]

Fagopirin

0.4 hingga 0.6 mg/g fagopirin (sekurang-kurangnya 2 bahan serupa)^[17]^[18]

Kegunaannya

Kuttu ke Pakore, snek daripada tepung gandum kuda di India
Teh gandum kuda hitam (黑苦荞茶) dihasilkan di Wilayah Sichuan, China
Mi soba yang diperbuat daripada tepung gandum kuda
Naengmyeon, mi sup sejuk Korea diperbuat daripada tepung gandum kuda
Lempeng tempung gandum kuda

Lihat juga

Eriogonum, genus tumbuhan liar Amerika Utara yang juga dikenali sebagai buckwheat.

Rujukan

↑ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Dicapai pada 3 October 2014.
1 2 "USDA GRIN Taxonomy". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2015-09-24. Dicapai pada 16 December 2014.
↑ Skrabanja V, Kreft I, Golob T, Modic M, Ikeda S, Ikeda K, Kreft S, Bonafaccia G, Knapp M, Kosmelj K. (2004). "Nutrient content in buckwheat milling fractions". Cereal Chemistry. 81 (2): 172–176. doi:10.1094/CCHEM.2004.81.2.172.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Skrabanja V, Laerke HN, Kreft I (September 1998). "Effects of hydrothermal processing of buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) groats on starch enzymatic availability in vitro and in vivo in rats". Journal of Cereal Science. 28 (2): 209–214. doi:10.1006/jcrs.1998.0200.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Skrabanja V, Elmstahl HGML, Kreft I, Bjorck IME (January 2001). "Nutritional properties of starch in buckwheat products: Studies in vitro and in vivo". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 49 (1): 490–496. doi:10.1021/jf000779w. PMID 11170616.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Eggum BO, Kreft I, Javornik B (1980). "Chemical-Composition and Protein-Quality of Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench)". Qualitas Plantarum Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 30 (3–4): 175–9. doi:10.1007/BF01094020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ "Buckwheat Profile - Agricultural Marketing Resource Center". Agmrc.org. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2013-11-14. Dicapai pada 2013-11-24.
↑ Bonafaccia G, Marocchini M, Kreft I (2003). "Composition and technological properties of the flour and bran from common and tartary buckwheat". Food Chemistry. 80 (1): 9–15. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00228-5.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ S. Ikeda, Y. Yamashita and I. Kreft (2000). "Essential mineral composition of buckwheat flour fractions". Fagopyrum. 17: 57–61.
↑ Bonafaccia, L. Gambelli, N. Fabjan and I. Kreft (October 2003). "Trace elements in flour and bran from common and tartary buckwheat". Food Chemistry. 83 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(03)00228-0.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Kreft S, Knapp M, Kreft I (November 1999). "Extraction of rutin from buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) seeds and determination by capillary electrophoresis". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 47 (11): 4649–52. doi:10.1021/jf990186p. PMID 10552865.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ "Phenol-Explorer: Showing report on Cereals". Phenol-explorer.eu. Dicapai pada 2013-11-24.
↑ Janes D, Kreft S (2008). "Salicylaldehyde is a characteristic aroma component of buckwheat groats". Food Chemistry. 109 (2): 293–8. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.12.032.
↑ Janes D, Kantar D, Kreft S, Prosen H (1 January 2009). "Identification of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) aroma compounds with GC-MS". Food Chemistry. 112 (1): 120–4. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.05.048.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Horbowicz M, Brenac P, Obendorf RL.Fagopyritol B1, O-alpha-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-->2)-D-chiro-inositol, a galactosyl cyclitol in maturing buckwheat seeds associated with desiccation tolerance. Planta. 1998 May;205(1):1-11.
↑ Kreft S, Strukelj B, Gaberscik A, Kreft I (August 2002). "Rutin in buckwheat herbs grown at different UV-B radiation levels: comparison of two UV spectrophotometric and an HPLC method". J Exp Bot. 53 (375): 1801–4. doi:10.1093/jxb/erf032. PMID 12147730.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Eguchi K, Anase T and Osuga H (2009). "Development of a High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Method to Determine the Fagopyrin Content of Tartary Buckwheat (Fagopyrum tartaricum Gaertn.) and Common Buckwheat (F. esculentum Moench)". Plant Production Science. 12 (4): 475–480. doi:10.1626/pps.12.475.
↑ Ožbolt L, Kreft S, Kreft I, Germ M and Stibilj V (2008). "Distribution of selenium and phenolics in buckwheat plants grown from seeds soaked in Se solution and under different levels of UV-B radiation". Food Chemistry. 110 (3): 691–6. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.073.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Bacaan lanjut

E.S. Oplinger, E.A. Oelke, M.A. Brinkman and K.A. Kelling (November 1989). "Buckwheat". Alternative Field Crops Manual. Dicapai pada 2008-02-26.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Damania, A.B. (1998). "Diversity of Major Cultivated Plants Domesticated in the Near East". Proceedings of the Harlan Symposium. Diarkib pada 2005-01-19. Ralat: If you specify |archivedate=, you must also specify |archiveurl=. https://web.archive.org/web/20050119053132/http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/Publications/HTMLPublications/47/ch07.htm. Diperolehi 2015-04-02.
Chun H.N., Chung C.K., Kang I.J., Kim E.R., Kim Y.S. (2003). "Effect of Germination on the Nutritional Value of Buckwheat Seed". Division of Life Sciences at Hallym University, South Korea. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2007-06-25. Dicapai pada 2015-04-02.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Mazza, G. (1992). "Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), the crop and its importance". Dalam MacRae, R. (penyunting). Encyclopedia of food science, food technology and nutrition. London: Academic Press Ltd. m/s. 534–9.
Mazza, G. (1993). "Storage, Processing, and Quality Aspects of Buckwheat Seed". Dalam Janick J., Simon J.E. (penyunting). New crops. New York: Wiley. m/s. 251–5.
Marshall, H.G. and Y. Pomeranz. (1982). "Buckwheat description, breeding, production and utilization". Dalam Y. Pomeranz (penyunting). Advances in cereal science and technology. St. Paul, MN.: Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chem. m/s. 157–212.
McGregor, S.E. (1976). "9 Crop Plants and Exotic Plants — Buckwheat". Insect Pollination Of Cultivated Crop Plants. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal |archive-url= requires |url= (bantuan) pada 2004-10-15. Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (bantuan); |access-date= requires |url= (bantuan) As found on the website of the Carl Hayden Bee Research Center of the USDA Agricultural Research Service.

Templat:Unimelb

Clayton G. Campbell (1997). Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.^{[pautan mati kekal]}

Pautan luar

Descriptors for Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.) Diarkibkan 2007-12-04 di Wayback Machine
Nutritional information for buckwheat
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.)^{[pautan mati kekal]}
Lnmcp.mf.uni-lj.si: Fagopyrum Journal Archive Diarkibkan 2010-12-24 di Wayback Machine

Recipes

"Buckwheat pancakes". BBC. Dicapai pada 2014-04-06.
"Buckwheat noodles with smoked salmon and dill". BBC. Dicapai pada 2014-04-06.

Templat:Cereal

[1] "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Dicapai pada 3 October 2014.

[GRIN-2] 1 2 "USDA GRIN Taxonomy". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2015-09-24. Dicapai pada 16 December 2014.

[3] Skrabanja V, Kreft I, Golob T, Modic M, Ikeda S, Ikeda K, Kreft S, Bonafaccia G, Knapp M, Kosmelj K. (2004). "Nutrient content in buckwheat milling fractions". Cereal Chemistry. 81 (2): 172–176. doi:10.1094/CCHEM.2004.81.2.172.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[4] Skrabanja V, Laerke HN, Kreft I (September 1998). "Effects of hydrothermal processing of buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) groats on starch enzymatic availability in vitro and in vivo in rats". Journal of Cereal Science. 28 (2): 209–214. doi:10.1006/jcrs.1998.0200.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[5] Skrabanja V, Elmstahl HGML, Kreft I, Bjorck IME (January 2001). "Nutritional properties of starch in buckwheat products: Studies in vitro and in vivo". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 49 (1): 490–496. doi:10.1021/jf000779w. PMID 11170616.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[6] Eggum BO, Kreft I, Javornik B (1980). "Chemical-Composition and Protein-Quality of Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench)". Qualitas Plantarum Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 30 (3–4): 175–9. doi:10.1007/BF01094020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[7] "Buckwheat Profile - Agricultural Marketing Resource Center". Agmrc.org. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2013-11-14. Dicapai pada 2013-11-24.

[8] Bonafaccia G, Marocchini M, Kreft I (2003). "Composition and technological properties of the flour and bran from common and tartary buckwheat". Food Chemistry. 80 (1): 9–15. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00228-5.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[9] S. Ikeda, Y. Yamashita and I. Kreft (2000). "Essential mineral composition of buckwheat flour fractions". Fagopyrum. 17: 57–61.

[10] Bonafaccia, L. Gambelli, N. Fabjan and I. Kreft (October 2003). "Trace elements in flour and bran from common and tartary buckwheat". Food Chemistry. 83 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(03)00228-0.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[11] Kreft S, Knapp M, Kreft I (November 1999). "Extraction of rutin from buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) seeds and determination by capillary electrophoresis". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 47 (11): 4649–52. doi:10.1021/jf990186p. PMID 10552865.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[12] "Phenol-Explorer: Showing report on Cereals". Phenol-explorer.eu. Dicapai pada 2013-11-24.

[13] Janes D, Kreft S (2008). "Salicylaldehyde is a characteristic aroma component of buckwheat groats". Food Chemistry. 109 (2): 293–8. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.12.032.

[14] Janes D, Kantar D, Kreft S, Prosen H (1 January 2009). "Identification of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) aroma compounds with GC-MS". Food Chemistry. 112 (1): 120–4. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.05.048.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[15] Horbowicz M, Brenac P, Obendorf RL.Fagopyritol B1, O-alpha-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-->2)-D-chiro-inositol, a galactosyl cyclitol in maturing buckwheat seeds associated with desiccation tolerance. Planta. 1998 May;205(1):1-11.

[16] Kreft S, Strukelj B, Gaberscik A, Kreft I (August 2002). "Rutin in buckwheat herbs grown at different UV-B radiation levels: comparison of two UV spectrophotometric and an HPLC method". J Exp Bot. 53 (375): 1801–4. doi:10.1093/jxb/erf032. PMID 12147730.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[17] Eguchi K, Anase T and Osuga H (2009). "Development of a High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Method to Determine the Fagopyrin Content of Tartary Buckwheat (Fagopyrum tartaricum Gaertn.) and Common Buckwheat (F. esculentum Moench)". Plant Production Science. 12 (4): 475–480. doi:10.1626/pps.12.475.

[18] Ožbolt L, Kreft S, Kreft I, Germ M and Stibilj V (2008). "Distribution of selenium and phenolics in buckwheat plants grown from seeds soaked in Se solution and under different levels of UV-B radiation". Food Chemistry. 110 (3): 691–6. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.073.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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